The park is open 24 hours daily, all year. The Panther Junction Visitor Center is open daily, 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., but may be closed on Christmas Day. The entrance stations and other visitor centers have variable seasons and hours. The park is relatively uncrowded much of the year. Visitation is highest in March and April. The park is extremely crowded during spring break, which is usually the second and third week in March. Easter weekend, Thanksgiving weekend, and the week between Christmas and New Year’s Day are also very busy. All lodging and campsites are usually full during these periods. Visitation is lowest in August and September.

The park plan was initiated in 1933, when Big Bend was designated a state park; the US Congress authorized the National park in 1935; the park was officially established on June 12, 1944. The “biosphere” is that veneer of our Earth’s crust, waters and atmosphere that supports life. It reaches from the deepest ocean floor 12 miles upward to the tops of the highest mountains and contains 193 distinct biogeographical zones or ecosystems. One of these is the vast Chihuahuan Desert of northern Mexico, southern Texas, and New Mexico. It is a biogeographical zone rich in geologic history and natural life forms. It is also an area exposed to a multitude of issues impacting its resources and people. Within its boundaries there are three special “biosphere reserves,” Big Bend, Jornada, and Mapimi, where answers to these pressures are being sought.

The Chihuahuan Desert Biogeographical Zone contains one multi-site Biosphere Reserve. Big Bend National Park in Texas and the Agricultural Research Service’s La Jornada Experimental Range in New Mexico were designated by UNESCO in 1976. Mapimi, nominated in 1977, is located in the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Durango and is administered by Mexico’s Institute of Ecology. The activities in each Biosphere Reserve are complimentary so together; Big Bend, Jornada, and Mapimi form a “regional” reserve in the true sense of the MAB model. Big Bend serves as a “core area” would in a singular Biosphere Reserve: all of the natural and cultural resources are fully protected for the future by mandates of the National Park Service. As the conservation core area, Big Bend provides baseline information from inventory and monitoring. This data can then be used to assess the effects of human activities. Big Bend remains one of the most pristine samples of America’s Chihuahuan Desert.

The field research area at Jornada serves as the Chihuahuan Desert Biosphere Reserve’s “buffer zone”. Work focuses on long-term experimental research and field application, primarily for agricultural use. The goal is to develop technologies that meet human needs and achieve sustainable natural communities. This type of manipulation cannot be conducted in the core area.

Mapimi serves as the “transition area” for the Chihuahuan Desert Biosphere Reserve but also includes its own core and buffer zones and is managed cooperatively by scientists, policy makers, landowners, and ejidatarios. Mapimi involves local residents in agriculture conservation, incorporates regional socio-economic problems into the reserve’s research, and employs a general land use plan for the entire area. Involving local residents in research, environmental education, and sustained uses is called the “Mexican modality” for Biosphere Reserves for which Mapimi is the prototype. The Mapimi program more comprehensively integrates Biosphere Reserve functions than the U. S. reserves.

The Big Bend has been a home to people for many centuries, but knowledge of the Rio Grande among non-Indians dates back less than 150 years. Spanish people crossed the Rio Grande in the 16th and 17th centuries searching for gold, silver, and fertile land. Comanche Indians crossed the river in the 19th century, traveling to and from Mexico with their raiding parties. Mexican settlers began farming on both banks of the river’s floodplain around 1900. Anglo-Americans joined in the farming after 1920, when boundary unrest ended. Cotton and food crops were grown around Castolon and what is now Rio Grande Village even after the park was established. From archeological sites dating back nearly 10,000 years, to ranches and mining operations from the early 1900s, Big Bend can be a great place to “discover” history. Only two prehistoric archeological sites are presently considered “public”–the Hot Springs pictograph site and the Chimneys. As research is completed on other archeological sites, they may be opened to the public, also. There are six National Register historic sites or districts in the park. They are Castolon Historic District, Hot Springs Historic Site, the Mariscal Mining District, the Homer Wilson Ranch Site, Rancho Estelle, and Luna’s Jacal.

Thousands of archeological sites within the park hold remnants of the material remains of 10,000 years of Native American occupation of the Big Bend. When properly studied, these sites can provide very valuable information about past cultures. Man has survived in the Big Bend region for more than 10,000 years by hunting and gathering. In fact, gathering plants accounted for up to 90 percent of their supplies. Native cultures of this area knew each plant and its various uses. The people traveled around the area based on harvest times of the resources. These nomadic people had to travel constantly to survive. They freely roamed the Big Bend in a seasonal cycle to glean their subsistence. The route was systematic and predictable, following resources as they developed and were ready to harvest. This region was a vast territory, rich in variety, with great ranges in topography and climate. The Chisos Mountain range was a special resource. It represented a haven from the desert lowlands and was an excellent source of food. In good years, the people would try to harvest everything in sight as it ripened. In bad years, they were busier than ever trying not to miss whatever was available.

As the native people traveled about harvesting supplies, they kept their possessions at a minimum. What they did carry with them had to be lightweight and durable. Generally, they packed all their possessions into a series of stacked baskets that were placed into a larger one. The largest basket was moved via a broad tumpline placed across the forehead. Most native cultures of the Big Bend region were talented basket weavers. Baskets were woven from willow (Salix sp.), sumac (Rhus sp.), Yucca, rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus sp.), Nolina, sotol (Dasylirion sp.), lechuguilla (Agave lechugilla), and the century plant (Agave harvardiana). Baskets were used to gather food in, prepare food in, cook food in, and store the excess. They also worked well for carrying other supplies.

Native people spent the winter in the desert living on supplies gathered the rest of the year. As spring arrived, they would slowly move up the mountains or northward gathering supplies. Spring was a time to gather greens, bulbs, roots, and young tender plant shoots. Greens or potherbs were often prepared like spinach or eaten like a tossed salad. Young shoots of plants were also gathered and eaten, usually after boiling. Young shoots from thistles (Cirsium), pinon pine (Pinus monophylla), rabbitbrush, cattails (Typha sp.), prickly pear (Opuntia) were all eaten. Bulbs such as wild onions (Allium sp.) were also important.

Roots were also gathered, and like bulbs, the Natives were careful to leave some behind to ensure future harvests. The hearts of the sotol and century plant were important food sources and were harvested in early summer. A pit was dug, lined with rocks and a fire was kept going inside the pit to heat the rocks. The plants were dug up, leaves were chopped off, and the remaining bulbs were thrown into the rock-lined pit. The bulbs were then covered with more rocks, dirt, and grass and allowed to cook for a couple days. After cooking, the top layers were removed and the bulbs retrieved. Bulbs were then often pounded into sheets on rocks, allowed to dry, and then used as an important winter food source.

In early summer, petals and whole flowers were eaten from thistles (artichokes are thistle flowers) yuccas, dandelions and paintbrush (Castelleja). Summertime was also spent gathering fruit from such plants as mesquite (Prosopsis sp.), sumac, juniper (Juniperus), elderberry (Sambucus sp.), chilipequin (Capsicum annuum), persimmon (Diospyros texana), prickly pear cactus, and other cacti. The fruits were eaten raw, but also prepared in beverages and preserved in large quantities for winter use. The fruit would be mashed and spread out in layers in the sun and dried. Dried fruit would then be broken up on a metate and stored or boiled with meat and fat to make pemmican. Pemmican would last for months without spoiling.

Late summer and early fall was the time for gathering seeds and nuts. Fall was the most important season for the native cultures. The food-gathering activities of the fall would determine how well they survived the long, cold winter. Pinon pine nuts (Pinus cembroides), acorns from the oaks (Quercus sp.), and walnuts (Juglans sp.) were gathered each fall and preserved for winter. Many plants like Mormon tea (Ephedra), sotol, saltbush (Atriplex), prickly pear cactus, and mustards, in addition to grasses, provided edible seeds. Grasses and other seeds provided high yields, were nutritious, and widely distributed. Seeds were often mixed to produce pinole or meal. Meal is a coarsely ground flour. Grinding the grain on a flat rock or metate with a hand-held stone or mano typically produced pinole. Mixing the meal with water and cooking it would make mush.

Later Native Americans in the Big Bend such as the Jumanos and Apaches relied on agriculture for a small portion of their subsistence. Since the tribes were nomadic, they would typically plant seeds such as squash, corn, beans, melons, and sunflowers where water was plentiful. Fields were deserted for weeks, with people returning only to weed, irrigate, and harvest crops. Sometimes the elderly or older children were left to watch and tend the fields. The people hoped something would survive to be harvested in the fall.

Food supplies were not the only things gathered throughout the year. Many plants provided fiber for clothing, mats, ropes, sandals, etc. yucca, juniper, nolina, sotol, and the agaves, were some of the common plants utilized in the Big Bend region. These same plants also provided tinder for fires.

That portion of the earth’s surface known as the Big Bend has often been described as a geologist’s paradise. In part this is due to the sparse vegetation of the region, which allows the various strata to be easily observed and studied. It is also due to the complex geologic history of the area, presenting a challenge to students and researchers from all over the world.

From an elevation of less than 2,000 feet along the Rio Grande to nearly 8,000 feet in the Chisos Mountains, Big Bend includes massive canyons, vast desert expanses, and the entire Chisos Mountain range. Because they receive more precipitation than the rest of the park, the Chisos are often referred to as a temperate island in a desert sea. The scenery varies widely ranging from the Rio Grande floodplain to arid badlands to sotol grasslands to rugged volcanic peaks.

Not all field geologists, however, refer to the Big Bend as a paradise. For some, this land of twisted, tortured rock is a nightmare. The abundance, diversity and complexity of visible rock outcrops is staggering, especially to first-time observers. From 500 million year old rocks at Persimmon Gap to modern-day windblown sand dunes at Boquillas Canyon, geologic formations in Big Bend demonstrate amazingly diverse depositional styles over a vast interval of time. For most of us, time is measured by the passing of days, years and generations.

For a period of at least 200 million years, ending some 300 million years ago in the Paleozoic Era, a deep-ocean trough extended from present-day Arkansas and Oklahoma into the Big Bend region of far West Texas. Sediments from highlands to the north accumulated in that trough to form layers of gravel, sand and clay. With the passing of time, these layers became sandstone and shale beds. About 300 million years ago these strata were “squeezed” upward by collision with a continent to the south to form the ancestral Ouachita Mountains. Subsequent erosion over an interval of 160 million years left only the roots of those mountains visible. These remnants may be observed today in the Ouachita Mountains of southeastern Oklahoma, in the immediate vicinity of Marathon, Texas, and in Big Bend National Park near Persimmon Gap.

A warm, shallow sea invaded the Big Bend during the Cretaceous Period, some 135 million years ago, providing the setting for deposition of lime mud and the remains of sea-dwelling organisms such as clams and snails. Limestone layers formed from those shallow muds are now visible throughout much of the Big Bend. They comprise the dramatic walls of Santa Elena, Mariscal and Boquillas canyons, the entire range of the Sierra del Caballo Muerto (Dead Horse Mountains) and the magnificent cliffs of the Sierra del Carmen in Coahuila, Mexico, towering above Rio Grande Village. Approximately 100 million years ago the shallow Cretaceous sea began a gradual retreat to its present location, the Gulf of Mexico. Sandstone and clay sediments that formed along the retreating shoreline are found in lowlands surrounding the Chisos Mountains. Shallow water strata of this episode contain the fossil remains of oysters, giant clams, ammonites, and a variety of fishes and marine reptiles. Near-shore deposits in Big Bend have yielded petrified wood, fossil turtles and crocodiles–one almost 50 feet long! Deposits from further inland contain fossil remains of a variety of dinosaurs. Perhaps the most famous of Big Bend’s fossil treasures from this period is the giant flying reptile, Quetzalcoatlus northropi, with a wingspan over 35 feet. (A replica of the bones of one wing is now on exhibit at the Panther Junction Visitor Center.)

Near the end of the Cretaceous Period, a west-to-east compression of the earth’s crust marked the beginning of the second major mountain-building period in Big Bend. This compression, which began in Canada, moved gradually southward, uplifting and folding ancient sediments to form the Rocky Mountains. In Big Bend National Park, Mariscal Mountain represents the southernmost extension of the Rockies in the United States. Broad uplift punctuated by upward folding exposed both the erosion-resistant lower Cretaceous limestones and the less resistant overlying sandstones and clays to the onslaught of erosion. Limestone cliffs throughout the region continue to be eroded today; most of the more easily removed sandstone and clay is gone from the mountains.

For almost 10 million years after uplift ended, non-marine sediments of the Tertiary period constitute the only record of events in the Big Bend. Dinosaurs had long been gone from the land, their places taken by a proliferation of mammals, many of whose remains have been found in Big Bend…horses, rhinos, camels and rodents, as well as fossils of the plants on which they thrived. All was not to remain quiet for long. Near the present northwest boundary of Big Bend National Park, the first of a long series of volcanic eruptions occurred approximately 42 million years ago. Upwelling magma lifted the mass now known as the Christmas Mountains, fracturing and weakening overlying strata, allowing massive outpourings of lava to spread across the land. The oldest volcanic rocks in Big Bend owe their origins to this eruptive cycle. Between roughly 38 and 32 million years ago Big Bend itself hosted a series of volcanic eruptions. Initial activity in this cycle centered in the Sierra Quemada, below the present South Rim of the Chisos Mountains. Subsequent volcanic activity at Pine Canyon, Burro Mesa, near Castolon and elsewhere in the park is responsible for the brightly colored volcanic ash and lava layers of the lower elevations and for most of the mass of the Chisos Mountains.

Volcanic activity was not continuous during these eruptive cycles. Periods of hundreds of thousands or perhaps millions of years passed between eruptions. During the quiet interludes the forces of erosion carved new landscapes, many of which were destined to be buried under layers of ash and lava from later eruptions. Life returned to the land only to be displaced by future eruptions. Elsewhere in the Big Bend rising magma sometimes failed to reach the surface. Instead, it spread within existing layers of rock, uplifting and fracturing overlying strata. Once the magma cooled and crystallized it formed solid masses of erosion-resistant intrusive igneous rock which have now been exposed by erosion of the overlying material. Maverick Mountain, the Grapevine Hills, Nugent Mountain and Pulliam Ridge are among many examples in Big Bend of such “frozen” magma chambers.

Beginning some 26 million years ago, stresses generated along the West coast of North America resulted in stretching of the earth’s crust as far east as Big Bend. As a result of these tensional forces fracture zones developed which, over time, allowed large bodies of rock to slide downward along active faults. The central mass of Big Bend National Park, including the Chisos Mountains, from the Sierra del Carmen to the east to the Mesa de Anguila to the west comprises such a block of rocks dropped downward by faulting. Direct evidence of this faulting is readily observed at the tunnel near Rio Grande Village. There the limestone layer through which the tunnel passes is the same layer that forms the skyline of the Sierra del Carmen to the east, dropped down over 4800 feet by faulting. To the west, at the mouth of Santa Elena Canyon the highest elevation rises 1500 feet above the river, while at the parking area the same layer lies some 1500 feet below the surface. Displacement along these faults did not occur in a single event, rather in a series of lesser episodes of faulting punctuated by earthquakes. The 1995 magnitude 5.6 earthquake near Marathon, Texas, 70 miles north of Panther Junction indicates that the responsible stresses are still active. The western slopes of the Chisos Mountains provide evidence of additional activity within the same fracture zones. Near the old ranch on the Ross Maxwell Scenic Drive stand a number of parallel ridges to the east of the road. These ridges are the eroded remains of tabular intrusions of magma along the Burro Mesa fault. The layers of volcanic ash into which the magma intruded are being actively removed by erosion, leaving the more resistant “dikes” of intrusive rocks standing in bold relief.

Mountain building by compression, volcanism and tension all served to form the framework for today’s landscapes in Big Bend National Park. Erosion of higher lands resulted in the filling of surrounding basins. Eventually basins from El Paso to Big Bend were filled and subsequently linked by the Rio Grande. Achieving through-flow to the Gulf of Mexico only within the last 2 million years, the Rio Grande ranks as the youngest major river system in the United States. Once established, the Rio Grande served, and continues to serve, as the conduit for material removed by erosion. The processes of erosion comprise the most active aspect of Big Bend’s geology today.

Erosion in Big Bend is best defined by rapid runoff and flash-flooding following summer thunderstorms, but there are other active agents of erosion. Water droplets in the atmosphere capture carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid, a very weak naturally occurring acid which has virtually no effect on man. One mineral, however, is vulnerable to attack by carbonic acid: calcite, which comprises the bulk of all limestone in the Big Bend. Every drop of rain that falls on limestone dissolves a tiny bit of calcite which is transported away by runoff, perhaps to a final destination in the Gulf of Mexico.

The beautifully etched limestone cliffs in the Sierra del Caballo Muerto and in Big Bend’s canyons owe their origin to Mother Nature’s own version of acid rain! Rainwater also contains free oxygen which reacts with sulfur-bearing minerals in igneous rocks. Virtually all igneous rocks in Big Bend contain minor amounts of pyrite, or Fool’s Gold, which is iron sulfide. Oxygen-bearing water attacks individual pyrite grains, replacing the sulfur with oxygen to form iron oxide, better known as rust, which provides the warm red and brown colors of igneous rocks in the Big Bend.

Plant and animal activity is also vital in the shaping of the land. As plants grow their root systems expand, forcing rocks ever farther apart, until, eventually, rocks are dislodged and fall. The same roots also extract needed minerals from rocks, weakening the rocks and rendering them more vulnerable to removal by flowing water. Similarly, animals crossing a rocky slope often dislodge rocks, sending them crashing down slope to collide with yet other rocks, which, in turn are dislodged. Though plants and animals play significant roles in erosion, the key player remains water. From chemical weathering by water-borne carbonic acid and oxygen to mechanical removal of soft and broken rocks, to scouring ever deeper and wider the canyons of the Big Bend, water is today, as it has been in the past, the major tool in the shaping of the land.

Big Bend National Park is located at the northern end of the Chihuahuan desert. Since most of the Chihuahuan desert is located in Mexico, Big Bend represents the largest protected portion of the Chihuahuan desert in the United States. In Big Bend you will find the desert to be the largest ecosystem in the park. Typical animals found in the desert are javelinas, roadrunners, jackrabbits, millipedes, and mule deer. The most familiar desert plants in the Chihuahuan desert are lechuguilla, sotol, numerous species of cactus, mesquite, and yuccas.

The Chihuahuan desert is the wettest of the four North American deserts, though it rarely receives more than 10 inches of rainfall. The rainy season in the desert is usually from mid-July through late September. Though it is called the rainy season, there are places in this desert environment that may not receive a drop.

Big Bend is one of the true jewels for paleontological research in the world. Unique among U.S. National Parks, Big Bend exhibits dinosaur remains from the last 35 million years of the dinosaurs’ existence. Furthermore, the fossil record here continues uninterrupted from the Age of Reptiles into the Age of Mammals. Over 90 dinosaur species, nearly 100 plant species, and more than two dozen fish, frogs, salamanders, turtles, crocodiles, lizards, and even early mammals have been discovered here, giving us one of the most complete pictures of a prehistoric ecosystem known anywhere on earth.

The fossil record here spans a rich history of 35 million years within the Cretaceous Period. Beginning about 100 million years ago, when a huge sea covered what is today most of the Midwestern U.S., the first of the ruling reptiles appeared in Big Bend’s fossil record. The sea layers of limestone known as the Boquillas Formation (100-95 million years ago) preserve numerous marine fossils, including a 30-foot long sea-dwelling reptile known as Mosasaurus.

The most exciting finds have occurred in strata that chronicle Big Bend’s emergence from this sea. Nearly 70 dinosaur species have been discovered in the Aguja Formation (80-75 million years ago) where we find evidence of a humid and swampy land. At this time, Big Bend was closer to the equator, and this tropical coastal swamp had palms, ferns, and diverse dinosaur life, including duck-billed Hadrosaurs.

By 75-60 million years ago, plant fossils suggest that the sea had retreated and Big Bend had become a drier floodplain environment. The sediments from these times, the Javelina Formation, have yielded over 80 species of plants, including cypress, laurel, conifers, and mangroves. While these plant finds are remarkable in their own right, they are usually overshadowed by several unique and spectacular dinosaur finds. Over 20 dinosaur species have been found in the Javelina Formation, giving us a rich glimpse into the last days of the ruling reptiles. These were the giants who ruled the earth at the time of the great extinction. These finds, and the possibility of future discoveries, make these sediments worth their weight in gold for paleontologists.

An impressive exhibit in the Panther Junction Visitor Center at Big Bend National Park displays a life-size replica of the wing bones of an enormous pterosaur. The 18-foot long specimen was discovered here in Big Bend National Park and represents the second largest known flying creature ever to have existed. Its name is Quetzalcoatlus northropi.

In 1971, Douglas A. Lawson, a student at the University of Texas in Austin, was performing geological field work in the park for his master’s thesis when he discovered a fossil bone eroding out of an arroyo bank. His professor, Dr. Wann Langston Jr., determined that this long, hollow, very thin-walled bone could only be from a pterosaur wing. Subsequent excavations recovered more wing bones, but unfortunately the wing must have detached from the body before being buried and fossilized, because no body bones could be found. Lawson named his discovery Quetzalcoatlus after the Mexican deity Quetzalcoatl, who was worshipped by the Aztecs in the form of a feathered snake.

Dr. Langston continued to search for and study Big Bend fossils and eventually found other specimens of Quetzalcoatlus in another part of the park. Although these specimens were smaller than the original, they were more complete and had a very impressive wingspan of at least 18 feet. Comparison of these complete specimens with the huge bones of the original Quetzalcoatlus made it possible to calculate the body size of Lawson’s specimen. This enormous pterosaur had an estimated wingspan of 36-39 feet, making it the largest known flying creature of all time. It is not yet clear whether the smaller specimens were young individuals of the large species, or whether they represent a distinct, smaller species of Quetzalcoatlus.

In 1999, Dana Biasetti, a graduate student from the University of Texas at Dallas, discovered giant dinosaur bones protruding from a dry hillside in the Javelina Formation of Big Bend National Park. Upon careful excavation, this hillside yielded partial pelvic bones and ten articulated cervical vertebrae of an adult Alamosaurus. Alamosaurus belongs to the group of dinosaurs named Sauropods-large herbivores with extremely long necks and tails. The Big Bend Alamosaurus appears to have been a massive individual, measuring in at 100 feet in length and probably weighing over 50 tons.

Due to their extreme size and the remote location of the fossil site, excavation and removal of these giant bones by hand was nearly impossible. As a result, Big Bend National Park issued a special permit to the excavation team to remove the fossil by helicopter. In 2001, UT Dallas now teamed with the Dallas Museum of Natural History, made history with Big Bend’s first ever “dinosaur airlift.” Over the next several years, the fossil was cleaned, studied, and prepared for display.

The fossilized remains of gigantic crocodiles have been discovered in the Aguja Formation in the south-central part of the Big Bend National Park. These are among the largest crocodiles ever known.
With lengths of 40-50 feet and jaws studded with 6-inch teeth, these powerful predators were extraordinarily equipped to feed upon a variety of dinosaurs. In fact, dinosaur bones have been found here that are heavily damaged and covered with distinctive crocodile bite marks! Just like modern day crocodilians, Deinosuchus riograndensis probably hunted by ambush…lying submerged near shore, and violently seizing large dinosaurs as they foraged amid the vegetation of Big Bend’s ancient swamps.

Along a stretch beginning upstream of Rio Grande Village, a series of thermal springs emerge adjacent to the Rio Grande. All of the hot springs in this region are believed to be related to normal faults. These Basin and Range type faults formed between 18 and 23 million years ago. Today, groundwater circulating deep in the earth becomes heated before it returns to the surface as hot springs.

The most famous of the thermal features along the Big Bend of the Rio Grande is the Langford Hot Springs. It is located where Tornillo Creek enters the Rio Grande, some four miles upriver from Boquillas Canyon and the Mexican village of Boquillas. The natural springs at the site are known as Boquillas Hot Springs. Boquillas is Spanish for “little mouths” and refers to the many small streams or arroyos that drain this part of the Sierra del Carmen range and flow into the Rio Grande. Later, when the springs were promoted for their health benefits, the settlement and spa resort there was called Hot Springs, and a post office by that name was established at the site in July 1914. Although there are several other small hot springs in the area, these larger and more accessible springs are the best known.

The temperature of the spring water, which is heated geothermally, is 105°F year-round; the water contains calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, and lithium. The springs’ flow rate in 1936 was 250,000 gallons a day, but more recent measurements show a decrease.

The Rio Grande is the defining feature of the Big Bend. It is here that the river swings abruptly to the northeast after flowing south and southeast for nearly 1,000 miles. In the desert life clings to water, and it is along the Rio Grande and intermittent streams that wildlife is often found. Both humans and animals are attracted to and depend on the limited water of the Rio Grande.

Big Bend National Park marks the northern extension of the Chihuahuan Desert, the largest of North America’s four deserts. Although water sources dot the landscape and flash floods occur after heavy rains, the Rio Grande provides the park’s most prominent source of water.

The Rio Grande begins its journey to the Gulf of Mexico from springs and snow melt high in the southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado. Along its way to the sea, the Rio Grande travels almost 2,000 miles. As it flows southward, its waters are diverted for flood control, irrigation, power generation, municipal uses, and recreation.

By the time the Rio Grande leaves El Paso, so much water has been diverted that the riverbed between El Paso and Presidio often lies dry. Depending upon annual rainfall patterns, 69 to 86 percent of the water in the Rio Grande downstream from Presidio flows from the Mexican Rio Conchos, which originates in the Sierra Madre of western Chihuahua. The Rio Conchos joins the Rio Grande near Ojinaga, Chihuahua and Presidio, Texas.

For more than 1,000 miles the Rio Grande serves as the international boundary between Mexico and the United States; Big Bend National Park administers approximately one-quarter of that boundary. The Rio Grande also defines the park’s southern boundary for 118 twisting miles. It is within this stretch that the Rio Grande’s southeasterly flow changes abruptly to the northeast and forms the “big bend” of the Rio Grande.

In 1978, Congress designated a 196-mile portion of the Rio Grande as part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Only the upper 69 miles of the Wild and Scenic River lie within the park’s boundary; the remaining 127 miles lie downstream of the park’s boundary. The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act directs that designated rivers “…be preserved in free-flowing condition, and that they…be protected for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations.”

Because the Rio Grande serves as an international boundary, the park’s jurisdiction extends only to the middle of the deepest river channel; the rest of the river lies within the Republic of Mexico. On the Rio Grande Wild and Scenic River section downstream from the park’s boundary, the park administers only from the gradient boundary at the river’s edge on the United States’ side to the middle of the deepest channel. Providing protection and maintaining the pristine character of the Rio Grande along this stretch, the Wild and Scenic River designation actually begins at the Coahuila/Chihuahua, Mexico, state border upstream from Mariscal Canyon and continues downstream 196 miles to the Terrell/Val Verde County line in Texas; approximately 69 miles of this designation lie within Big Bend National Park. Both the Rio Grande Wild and Scenic River and the river along the park’s boundary are managed for recreation and preservation by the National Park Service.

Big Bend National Park is a diverse area containing over 1,200 species of plants. Three cacti are threatened in the park. The cacti are at risk from poachers. The Chisos hedgehog cactus, Echinocereus chisoensis, grows below 2,400 feet in elevation. The three-inch flowers are tricolor and appear in the spring. The fruits are reddish and fleshy. The status of this species is not known. A three-year ecology and population study of the Chisos hedgehog began in 2000. Corypantha ramillosa, bunched cory cactus, is a tiny three-inch cactus with deep rose-purple flowers. It occurs in limestone hills near the river. The status of this species is also unknown. Lloyd’s mariposa cactus, Echinomastus mariposensis, is white-spined and produces white to pink flowers in the spring. It occurs on limestone slopes below 3,500’ in the eastern part of Big Bend. Its status is unknown. Park staff is monitoring known locations of these and the other cacti in order to learn more about their populations.

There are three agaves in Big Bend. Agave lechuguilla, commonly called lechuguilla, is the indicator plant of the Chihuahuan Desert. This means it is only found in the Chihuahuan Desert and nowhere else in the world! Agaves are a low growing evergreen plant with succulent leaves that form a bowl shape or basal rosette. Lechuguilla was a very important source of fiber for Native Americans and is still used today to make rope in Mexico. The roots of the plant are high in saponins, so they taste bitter but are a good source of soap. The lechuguilla blooms once after growing three to twenty years. Agave havardiana or the century plant is the largest agave in the park. It blooms once in its life after growing 20-50 years. Mexican long-nosed bats pollinate the bright yellow flowers. Once baked, the plant provided a source of food that could be dried and stored to help them to survive the long winter. The dried flower stalks served as building material. Century plants in Mexico provide the alcoholic beverages of pulque, mescal, and tequila. The third agave in Big Bend is actually a hybrid. Agave gracilipes is the plant that occurs when the century plant and lechuguilla cross breed. It looks like a large lechuguilla or a small century plant. It also provided fiber for the Native Americans.

Sotol, Dasylirion species, is composed of a cluster of numerous linear, flattened leaves that have hooked teeth along the margins of the leaf. The leaf bases are spoon-like. A tall flower stalk is produced each spring that has light colored, nondescript flowers clustered together. The fruit is three- winged and triangular. Twenty species occur in southwestern U.S. and Northern Mexico.
Sotol was an important source of materials for basket making. The young flower stalks were eaten, as were the seeds. The heart of the plant was cooked along with agave hearts in a stone-lined pit for several days and then eaten. The stalks were used to make temporary shelters, porches, roofs, corrals and walking sticks. When the sap is fermented it produces the alcoholic beverage also called sotol.

Nolina species has linear leaves that are long, numerous, and clustered. Margins of the leaves are finely toothed. The flower is short stemmed, with cream-colored flowers. The leaves were an important source of material for mats, sandals, and basket making. However, the plant was not eaten since it is poisonous and could cause liver and kidney damage. There are five species in the Trans-Pecos area and 30 species in the U.S. and Mexico.

There are nine species of oak in Big Bend National Park. These trees or shrubs have simple alternate leaves with margins that are smooth, lobed, or toothed. The fruit or acorn is one celled; one seeded, and sits in a cup that partially envelops the seed. Hybridization is common among oaks. The oaks of Big Bend National Park are relic species – left behind on the mountaintops from a cooler time. The acorns on most species are edible. They need to be soaked in water before eating to remove some of the bitter taste. The early settlers of this area commonly made a flour or meal from the leached acorns. Oaks produce a hard wood important for firewood, tools, and furniture making.

Prosopis glandulosa, or honey mesquite and Prosopis, pubescens, screwbean mesquite, are both found in Big Bend National Park. These shrubby trees are armed with straight, stout spines that are solitary or paired, and have deep, drought-defying roots. The fruit is a tough pod where the seeds are partitioned and embedded. The fruits were an important food source for the Native Americans. The developing pods are sweet raw or cooked. The seeds are also edible and could be ground into flour or meal. The meal could be mixed with water to make a lemony drink. The drink was also fermented. The sap or pitch, was used to waterproof baskets, make candy, and produce a black dye. The sap was mixed with mud and plastered on the head. Once dry, it was removed leaving the hair shiny, black, and lice-free. The inner bark and roots were a source of fiber for baskets. The hard wood was an important source of tools and weapons. Today mesquite is used in posts, carvings, tool handles, gunstocks, and for barbecues.

Pinus cembroides, or the Mexican pinon pine, is a small evergreen tree with needles in clusters of two to five. They produce a woody cone that matures in two years and produces an edible nut. Although the nut has a hard shell, it is very tasty and was prized by the Native Americans. The nut stored well for winter and was high in protein and calories. This tree was once more widespread in cooler times and is now considered a relic species. It provided pitch or sap for waterproofing baskets, chewing gum, and also was used medicinally to treat sore throats and remove splinters. A tea made from the needles is high in vitamin C.

Rose-fruited juniper, Juniperus erythrocarpa, is the shrubby juniper of the park. Typically growing no taller that five feet, the alligator juniper, Juniperus deppeana, has checkered or scaly bark and is taller and more tree-like than other junipers in the area. Drooping juniper, or Juniperus flaccida, is common in Mexico but only found in the U.S. in the Chisos Mountains of Big Bend National Park. Its needles droop causing this small tree to appear like it always needs a drink of water. The bark of all three juniper species provided a source of fiber for sandals, mats, and baskets for early Native Americans. The cones are small and berry-like, and were used in seasoning meats and for beads in necklaces.

Yuccas are members of the lily family and bloom every year if there has been enough rainfall. The four yuccas of Big Bend National Park, Faxon yucca or giant dagger (Yucca faxoniana), beaked yucca (Yucca rostrata), soaptree yucca (Yucca elata) and Spanish dagger or torrey yucca (Yucca treculean), all have trunks that elevate the leaves above the ground. The trunk is often covered with dry, dead leaves. The leaves are long, fibrous, and spine-tipped. The cream-white flowers appear in late spring and produce a fleshy or dry fruit with black seeds. The flowers are pollinated primarily by the yucca moth. Native Americans ate the flower buds, petals, and young stalks. The fruits and seeds were also eaten. The fibrous leaves were used to make cloth, rope, mats, sandals, and baskets. The root provided soap and was used as a laxative.

There are sixteen species of Opuntia in the Trans-Pecos area of Texas. These species tend to hybridize, so it is often difficult to determine which prickly pear is which. There are two general varieties. The chollas have cylindrical stems and the prickly pears that have flattened stems. The cacti have spines instead of leaves to conserve water and carry out all food production through the stems of the plants. The spines are numerous and can be yellow, brown, pink, red, or black in color depending on the species. The flowers appear in April and are usually yellow (prickly pears) or pink (chollas). Fruits are usually maroon (prickly pears) or yellow (chollas) and some varieties are very juicy and sweet. The Native Americans ate these fruits, called tunas, and today we use them to make jellies and syrups. The young cactus pads or nopals were used as a potherb (like greens) or pickled. Their taste is typically described as a cross between green pepper and okra. The seeds were eaten in soups or ground up for flour. The pads were sometimes split and soaked in water and could be used to bind wounds with the sticky side down. The insides are similar to aloe vera and softened the skin and lessened pain. The bitter juice from the pads could be used as an emergency source of water. In Mexico, fields of prickly pear are grown for a scale insect, the cochineal, which grows on the pads. This insect is used to produce a beautiful natural purple dye.

Lightly traveled roads and varied terrain make Big Bend a premier bicycling location. Over 100 miles of paved roads, and 160 miles of backcountry dirt roads provide challenges for riders of all types and abilities. Bicyclists must be extremely cautious and well-prepared, but bicycling allows outstanding panoramic views, unobstructed by a windshield. It also allows the bicyclist to see and hear some of the smaller wonders of Big Bend from a more intimate viewpoint. All park roads are open to cyclists. A good map is essential. The Road Guide to Backcountry Dirt Roads of Big Bend National Park and the Road Guide to Paved and Improved Dirt Roads of Big Bend National Park have good descriptions of the roads and points of interest (available at the BBNHA Web Page Book Store). Many of the rides in the park are easier with a shuttle. If you have the luxury of having someone shuttle your vehicle or pick you up after a long day of cycling, opportunities are endless.

The spectacular river canyons, the primitive character of the Rio Grande, and its international flavor provide a stimulating environment for a high quality recreational and scenic experience. The river is a free-flowing river with a sufficient volume of water during normal years to permit full enjoyment of river recreational activities. There is kayaking, whitewater rafting, boating and fishing to enjoy. Three options are available if you desire to make a river trip: you can bring your own equipment and go exploring on your own, rent equipment, or hire a guide service that will provide all permits, food, equipment, and shuttles. A backcountry use permit is required for day and overnight use of floating craft on all sections of the Rio Grande administered by the National Park Service, except for persons day-fishing downstream from the park boundary. The permit is free and can be obtained at park visitor centers and at self-permit stations at Lajitas (Barton Warnock Environmental Education Center–only for Santa Elena Canyon) and the Stillwell Store and RV Park on FM2627 enroute to the Lower Canyons put-in at La Linda.

Hiking and backpacking experiences abound in the park. About 30 miles of park trails are developed and heavily used. These include short nature trails and the trails in the Chisos Mountains. Most other trails are primitive, difficult to follow, and in some instances no more than a route up a dry wash. Because they receive more precipitation than the rest of the park, the Chisos are often referred to as a temperate island in a desert sea. Since the Chisos are the most popular hiking area in the park, designated campsites help reduce damage to this delicate environment. The scenery varies widely ranging from the Rio Grande floodplain to arid badlands to sotol grasslands to rugged volcanic peaks. The desert provides virtually any backcountry experience sought by a hiker. Some areas are often used; others, more isolated, are seldom used and reflect a true wilderness setting. Mesa de Anguila and Dead Horse Mountains are the most remote areas, these magnificent limestone uplifts are best left to experienced backpackers. In the oven of summer they are particularly dangerous. Each year, park rangers respond to desert emergencies where hikers are not prepared for the heat and extreme conditions of the Big Bend Desert.

Big Bend National Park is not typically considered a climbers’ destination, but it offers some scenic, challenging, and wildly varied rock climbs for some real outdoor adventure. A hand written, yellowing guide of Big Bend penned by Roger Sigland in 1969 has been used here as a reference. Roger was a ranger at the time and had authored many first ascents in the park, some of which have seen very few, if any, second ascents. Roger collected information on Herb and Jan Conn, a couple who recorded Big Bend’s first technical climbs from 1946 to 1948. They have many first ascents to their credit, notably Dutch Girl, a beautiful crack climb up a scenic spire at the end of the Lost Mine Trail, Ice Cream Cone, a pinnacle off the north-west flank of Emory Peak, and a steep route on the north face of Casa Grande. To the best of the park’s knowledge, the route on Casa Grande has yet to see a second ascent.

Climbing in the park is unofficially discouraged because there is little written information to disseminate, the quality of rock ranges from fair to terrifying, the weather can be extremely harsh, and the approaches can be long, waterless ordeals. Bolting of any kind, electric or hand is strictly forbidden. Climbing here can be very rewarding, but leaving any trace of impact on this resource, over time, will surely jeopardize access. Please get involved. If you do climb in the park let a ranger know about it. Provide a photo or sketch if you can, and a written description of the location, route, and overall quality of the climb. Your information will be much appreciated by future climbers.

The majority of the park’s exposed vertical rock is composed of unstable igneous rock (rhyolite) and sharply fluted limestone. River canyon routes, Dog Canyon, and Mesa de Anguila routes are generally composed of limestone. Routes in the Chisos, Grapevine Hills, and Pine Canyon are generally composed of igneous rock. Don’t let this discourage you too much; there are relatively solid climbs on igneous rock. As stated by Roger Sigland in his informal guide, “On any climb expect rotten rock and few good cracks for pitons.” The use of portable electric drills is prohibited. Hand drilling is allowed only with written approval of the Superintendent. There are routes with bolts and even a few sport climbs in the park, but some were placed prior to any rules on the subject and some were placed illegally. Replacement of old bolts with 3/8 inch bolts is currently allowed.

Dog Canyon offers Big Bend’s only sport climbs. Drive north from Panther Junction for about 25 miles and park in the Dog Canyon trailhead parking area. The approach is a flat 2-mile walk to the canyon. However, there are several other areas that provide potentially good climbing opportunities as well- Pine Canyon, Grapevine Hills, Chisos Mountains, Green Gulch, Basin Rock, Lodge Rock, Appetite Peak, Lost Mine, High Chisos, Santa Elena Canyon, Mule Ears, and Mesa de Anguila.

Visitors to the park are welcome to bring and use personally owned livestock as long as they understand and abide by the rules and regulations governing the use of livestock. A day use permit is required for all stock use and may be obtained at any visitor center, free of charge. All gravel roads are open to horse riders. Horses are not permitted upon the paved roads or the shoulders of the paved roads. Cross country horse travel is permitted throughout the park, except for the Chisos Mountains area. Horse use in the Chisos Mountains is limited to the Laguna Meadow Trail, the Southwest Rim to the junction with the Boot Canyon Trail, and the Blue Creek Trail.

While all exotic plants/animals can be considered nonnative they are not all invasive. Many plants and animals have followed humans around the globe, though because of their close relationship with humans or the human created environment they are not successful in a place like Big Bend. There are many invasive species in Big Bend National Park. Of them, there is a handful that are the most noteworthy as a result of the impacts caused by their spread.

Possibly the most well known and longest lasting invasive species in the park is Salt Cedar, also known as Tamarisk. These trees were introduced to much of the desert southwest in the early 1900s as windbreaks and to lessen the impacts of soil erosion. Ironically, it is this plant that has caused some of the worst erosive features on the Rio Grande. What is worse, this tree is know to evaporate significant amounts of water, much more than a like sized cottonwood or willow would in a day. Equally depressing is the rate of spread for this plant, which has been known to resist cold temperatures, fire, floods, and drought.

Although several state and Federal agencies, including park staff, periodically monitor the quality of the river’s water, the monitoring is not done frequently enough to give managers a clear understanding of the Rio Grande’s water quality. Most studies provide only a “snapshot” view of the river. The Texas Natural Resources Conservation Commission (TNRCC) fosters the Texas Watch Program, organized groups of volunteers who collect and analyze water samples for five basic quality parameters on a quarterly basis. The Big Bend River Watchers group was formed in August 1994 to conduct this sampling and analysis from Presidio through Boquillas Canyon.

Although the park cannot directly affect the quantity and quality of the river upstream, the park will continue to monitor water flows and quality and to participate in the Texas Watch program. The park has also begun working with the Rio Grande Compact Commission and the IBWC to explore long-term strategies to ensure minimum flow levels and treaty compliance.

The lower elevation desert contains mosaics of shrubs and grasses, and mixes of both depending on landform. Conditions prior to grazing can only be inferred. Mule train owners cut Chino grama, and perhaps tobosagrass to feed their animals.
Early settlers such as J.O. Langford described grasses as abundant “knee deep to a horse…only the tallest of the desert plants stood out above it.” Others referred to periodic abundant grass and although these ranchers lacked scientist’s trained eyes, they knew grass turned cows into money. Overgrazing led to sheet and rill erosion, channel cutting and conversion to more drought tolerant shrubs rather than perennial grasses. Recent research estimated it takes from 25-40 years for overgrazed sites to recover comparable vegetation, with recovery highly dependent on moisture.

That fire is the primary shaper of these ecosystems is debated. Above average precipitation in the growing season and availability of seed sources may lead to greater establishment of grasses. Fire is expected to be infrequent in these low biomass/density areas where landform shapes moisture conditions.

The fire history data and precipitation records from 1948 to 2003, suggest that there is strong relationship between the amount of area burned in Big Bend National Park and the adjacent surrounding area and the amount of precipitation received in preceding years. Grass is the primary carrier of fire at the park and the amount of grass increases with increasing precipitation. In drought years grass production is low and any grass grown in a preceding wet period will decrease thus limiting fire spread. However, during wetter periods more grass is produced and the ability of fire to spread increases. The drought of the 1950s and the most recent drought of the late 1990s resulted in limited burned area.

Preliminary research in the Chisos Mountains conservatively indicates that lightning-caused fires burned through the high woodland forests about once every 13 years. Studies in other mountainous parts of the Southwest suggest that many areas experienced fires as often as every five years. The last sizable fire in the Chisos was in 1903. Lack of fire is attributed to grazing (from 1880s to 1940s), drought (in 1890s and 1950s especially) and suppression (since grazing) which promoted shrub growth over grasses.

A regular cycle of fires in the Chisos consumed the buildup of dead wood and brush, killed off diseased and insect-ridden trees, and worked to thin the forest. One result of fire’s impact on the ecosystem was the beautiful oak-piñon forest of the higher reaches of the Chisos. The oak and piñon trees offered abundant food (acorns and pine nuts) for wildlife species such as black bears. Grasses that flourished in fire-maintained meadows and beneath open stands of trees provided highly nutritional food for white tail deer. The high density of deer enabled mountain lions to thrive in the mountains.

Annual precipitation is just under 10 inches in most of the park, but in wet years may exceed 30 inches in the mountains. Typically, winter and spring are dry seasons; the rains usually begin in June and last into the fall. Summer brings hot days and warm nights. Dramatic afternoon lightning storms with high winds are common and come on quickly. Heavy downpours may result in flash floods. Winter days may be sunny and warm, but the nights tend to be cold. Winter storms can blow in suddenly with plummeting temperatures and rain or snow. Appropriate clothing and other gear should be carried from November through April. The weather in Big Bend, hot or cold, injures and kills more hikers than any other factor. Come well prepared because weather changes can be dramatic and unexpected.

Current Park Weather

Due to the complex topography and vague trails, detailed 7.5 minute topographic maps and a compass are necessary for most hikes. The dry desert air quickly uses up the body’s water reserves. It is recommend that you carry a minimum of one gallon of water per person per day in the summer, slightly less in the winter. For half-day hikes, carry at least 2 quarts per person. Springs and tinajas (depressions in rock where water collects) are unreliable and may be unsafe to drink. Springs are rare in the desert and wildlife depend on them. Please carry enough water to supply your own needs. For cooking, drinking, and washing it is suggested 1 gallon/person/24 hours.

Backcountry rules include: leaving all natural, prehistoric, and historic features undisturbed, packing out all of your litter, including cigarette butts, toilet paper, and sanitary items, burying human waste 6 to 8 inches deep, well away from camp and any water source, and camping at least 100 yards from any water source–being too close may frighten away wildlife and damage fragile vegetation.

Prepare for emergencies–bring the essentials from this backpacking checklist: well made backpack and repair kit, first aid kit, compass, topographical map, extra food and water, knife, flashlight, rain gear, and spare clothing, good hiking boots, campstove (no fires allowed), tent with rainfly, sleeping bag, sleeping mat, GPS unit, multipurpose tool or knife, signal mirror or whistle, wide brimmed hat, sunscreen with high SPF, and insect repellent. Notify friends or family of your itinerary–they can contact the park if you fail to return. Fill out a Solo Hiker Form if you are backpacking alone in a remote area.

Do not build a fire–if you need to cook, use a backpacker’s stove. Do not bring your pets while hiking or camping. They may frighten wildlife and are not allowed off established roadways. Do not camp in a dry wash as flash floods can occur without warning and are devastating. If you do smoke while you travel, stop where you can’t start a fire, and be sure to pack out the butts. Don’t cut switchbacks on trails–it starts erosion that destroys trails. Guns are prohibited.

Horses are not permitted on the interpretive nature trails in the park since they were only designed for foot travel. The short trails into Santa Elena and Boquillas Canyons are also restricted to pedestrians only. The Pine Canyon Trail in the Pine Canyon Designated Natural Research Area is closed to horses. Horses are not permitted in developed campgrounds, picnic areas, near eating or sleeping facilities or other areas of concentrated visitor use. All areas of domestic water supply or other sanitation facilities are closed to horses. Horses may not be taken into Mexico and brought back into the United States without proper authorization from the United States Department of Agriculture.

Backcountry riders must provide controlled overnight maintenance of their animals, including the provision of commercial feed. Grazing within the park is not allowed. Water must generally be hauled to the stock in the lower elevations of the park, where a semi-desert climate prevails. Stock may be watered at the Rio Grande and springs that are not utilized for domestic water supply. Check with park rangers for spring water flows in various areas of the park. Areas of quicksand may be encountered along the streams, washes, and the Rio Grande. Desert vegetation such as lechuguilla and cactus can injure livestock.

Permits are required for overnight camping. All backcountry campsites are available on a first come, first served basis, except for the Government Springs campsite, which you can reserve up to ten weeks ahead of time. If you are unable to arrive by 6:00 PM on the first day of the reservation at Government Springs, you should contact the park at (432) 477-2251. Failure to do so may result in a cancellation of the reservation. Check with the park to see which backcountry campsites are open to horses.

A Park Ranger may inspect your boat for required equipment while you are on the river. The following equipment is essential for a safe river trip: boat-canoes, kayaks, or heavy duty inflatable rafts; dump-station compatible carry-out toilet-to pack out human waste; and life jackets-one U.S. Coast Guard approved life jacket per person. It must be worn on class II or greater water (International Scale) and on inner tubes or air mattresses. Bring one extra per group. Also, paddles/oars-each vessel (except inner tubes and air mattresses) must carry an extra paddle or oar, except for kayaks, which must carry one extra paddle per party; patch kit/pump-all inflatable vessels, except inner tubes and air mattresses, must carry a patch kit and pump. It is recommended to also bring first aid kit-to handle major and minor emergencies; plastic trash bags to carry out all trash;
safety line-rope length 50′-100′ and 3/8″ diameter, carry tie-downs to secure gear in your vessel; a bailing bucket to remove water from inside your vessel; water-tight containers to keep food, clothing, gear dry; a small shovel; and a flashlight. You will also want to treat any water collected for drinking, camp well above the high water mark and out of any side canyons, respect private property in both countries, urinate in the river or on wet shoreline, carry out all other human waste, and report all injuries or property damage or losses over $100 to a Park Ranger.
Swimming in the Rio Grande is not recommended. The river can be hazardous, even in calm-looking water. Be aware of strong undercurrents, shallow areas with sharp rocks and large tree limbs, and be watchful for trot lines with large hooks.

Do not rock climb without appropriate gear, adequate preparation, and knowledge of the area. Rock is generally unstable in the park and may be dangerous. Climb safe! A climbing helmet is an absolutely necessary part of a Big Bend climber’s rack. Dehydration kills park visitors every year; you cannot bring too much water. All rock in Big Bend National Park is suspect, so belayer position and gear placement are especially critical. Permits are not required for climbing, although voluntary registration at one of the visitor centers is encouraged. Some climbing areas are so remote, however, that a backcountry permit may be required to gain access to them. Please check in and out for safety reasons as well as to provide climbing information for the park. Most climbs in the park require traditional gear from small nuts to off width protection.

Many climbs involve a significant approach so check the weather and pack accordingly. Climbing, ascending, descending, or traversing an archeological or cultural resource is prohibited. Be aware of your impact and tread lightly. There are areas that are closed to climbing from February 1 to May 31 annually to protect nesting sites of the peregrine falcon. Check with a ranger.

Before you set out to explore any backcountry roads make sure that your vehicle and its tires are in good condition. A disabled vehicle on these isolated roads can become a life-threatening situation. Check your vehicle’s fluid levels and the air pressure in the tires to make sure they are at the recommended levels. Make sure that you have emergency equipment: a good spare tire, a tire repair kit and pump, extra belts and hoses, tools to change tires and extra coolant or water for your vehicle’s radiator. You must also provide for yourself and your passengers. Carry plenty of water—you may find someone in the backcountry that really needs it (maybe yourself!). Carry some type of high energy food that will keep, such as trail mix, in case you need it. You should also carry a first aid kit and some sleeping gear in case you have to spend an unplanned night in your vehicle. Dress as if you were going hiking (hiking boots, long pants, long sleeve shirt, and a hat) so that you are prepared to walk if the need arises. Check the road conditions with a park ranger at one of the visitor centers before you go, and let someone know where you are going and when you expect to return.

There are some important things that you should also remember. Slow speed is much easier on your vehicle, its tires and its occupants, and it also allows you to enjoy the scenery. Remember that every vehicle has its limits; if you encounter a road obstacle or conditions that you believe are beyond the limits of your vehicle, you usually have the option of turning around. Carry a map of the park so you know where you are on the road at all times (keep track of how far you have traveled in case you have to walk back). If your vehicle becomes disabled, it is almost always best to stay with your vehicle. Hopefully a park ranger or another visitor will see you, or whoever you informed that you were going and who will report you overdue. If walking becomes necessary, it is imperative that you carry water and stay on the road. Leave a note on the dashboard of your vehicle that says what the problem is and where you are going. In addition to protecting yourself, you are also responsible for protecting and preserving the resources of the park. Stay on the established roadways. Off-road vehicle travel is not allowed. Finally, remember to lock your vehicle if you are leaving it unattended and secure your valuables.

Pets on leashes are allowed in campgrounds, picnic areas and along road sides, but not on any park trails. You are not allowed to leave your pet unattended in vehicles if it creates a danger to the animal, or if the animal becomes a public nuisance

Many of the park’s archeological and historical sites have been vandalized and valuable information has been destroyed or removed by artifact collectors. Casual artifact collecting by the park visitor has resulted in the loss and destruction of much evidence of the past, information which could otherwise be obtained through scientific investigation. Archeological sites are protected by the Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1979. Under this act, people who disturb these cultural resources can be fined up to $10,000 and sentenced to up to six months in prison for their first offense. Information about sites is exempt from the Public Freedom of Information Act.

If Big Bend had a symbol, it might well be the mountain lion—the embodiment of freedom and wildness. Solitary and secretive, this mighty creature is the unquestioned lord of its natural world. As one of Big Bend’s top predators, Felis concolor—”cat all of one color”—is vital in maintaining the park’s biological diversity. In the delicate habitats of the Chihuahuan Desert, mountain lions help balance herbivores (animals that eat plants) and vegetation. Research shows that cats help keep deer and javelina within the limits of their food resources. Without lions, the complex network of life in Big Bend would certainly be changed.

The javelina or collared peccary Tayassu tajacu, is found as far south as Argentina and as far north as Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Collared peccaries are in the even-toed, hoofed mammal order of Artiodactyla. Javelinas are often called pigs but they really are not. They are in a different family than pigs. Javelinas thrive in a variety of habitats and are able to adapt easily to different areas in their territory. The javelina is an herbivore (plant eater) and frugivore (fruit eater). Coyotes, bobcats, black bears, and mountain lions prey upon javelinas.

One of the largest mammals in Big Bend National Park is the mule deer. They stand 3 to 3 1/2 feet high at the shoulder and are about 6 1/2 feet long. When undisturbed, they will feed at any time of day. Deer will rapidly consume young, green leaves of herbs and grasses when available. They are more typically browsers, however, feeding on twigs and leaves of shrubs. Mule deer are preyed upon by mountain lions. When a mule deer senses danger, it performs a stiff-legged bound, bringing all four feet off the ground at the same time. A deer can stott from a standstill or when running. While stotting, a deer can travel up to 26 feet in a single leap and clear obstacles up to six feet high. It can turn its body completely around in mid-air, reversing direction. A mule deer uses the leaps to bound up slopes and over bushes and rocks, making it difficult for predators to follow. The pogo stick-like leap also provides an elevated view of the terrain and perhaps signals to the predator that they have been spotted.

The Elf Owl, Western Screech Owl, and Great Horned Owl are all found within the park. Owls are amazing creatures and well adapted predators. Owls eat mice, voles, shrews, rats, squirrels, lemmings, grasshoppers, fish, snakes, birds, skunks, rabbits, insects, spiders, scorpions, reptiles and even other owls. Some scientists estimate that one owl will eat 2,000 rodents a year, that’s 5-6 per night! There are several ways to locate owls in the wild. Look for whitewash on trees and cliffs. Watch known holes in trees; they may be the home of an owl. If you see small birds are chasing and dive bombing a larger bird, check to see if the large bird is an owl. At night shine a flashlight around the area where you are watching. It may pick up eye shine or reflected light from the eyes of owls.

The Big Bend mosquito fish, Gambusia gaigei, is an endemic species. The only place in the world it is found is a few ponds near the Rio Grande Village. This tiny endangered fish is at risk from exotic species competition and diminishing habitat. Although never abundant, the Big Bend gambusia population is now considered stable. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service moved some of the Gambusia gaigei to a fish hatchery in Dexter, New Mexico, in the event that something should happen to the population in Big Bend National Park and a source to restock the park became necessary.

Two endangered birds are found in Big Bend. Both are considered stable populations. The black-capped vireo, Vireo atricapillus, has been threatened by habitat loss and cowbird parasitism. The cowbird lays its eggs in other bird’s nests and then relies on the host parents to raise the young. The cowbird hatchlings are typically larger and more aggressive than the young belonging in the nest. This often results in only the cowbird surviving. The black-capped vireo nests in oak scrub and thickets in the Basin area. An annual study is done each spring to monitor the black capped vireo’s nesting success. The peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus, nests on cliffs in the Chisos Basin and along the canyons of the Rio Grande. The aeries or nest sites are often used year after year by the pair. There are fourteen known peregrine territories monitored each year in Big Bend National Park. Some trails are closed in the park during the peregrine nesting period to help protect them and ensure their success. The peregrine was recently removed from the Endangered Species list because it has recovered in much of its range. In the park, however, it is still a species of concern and monitoring will continue.

The endangered Mexican long-nosed bat, Leptonycteris nivalis, is a nectar feeder. It is often seen on summer evenings feeding on the century plant or agave flower stalks. In return, the bat pollinates the agave flowers. The Mexican long-nosed bat population is considered to be stable in the park. Its habitat, however, is threatened in Mexico.

About two dozen mountain lions live in Big Bend. Also called panther, cougar, or puma, mountain lions are most often seen in the Chisos Mountains. Lion attacks on humans are rare, yet three have occurred since 1985. If you encounter an aggressive lion, hold your ground, wave your arms, throw stones, and shout. Never run.

You are unlikely to encounter a black bear while hiking, although a small population lives in the Chisos Mountains year around. As you hike, pay close attention to the path ahead. Survey the landscape for wildlife. Keep a clean camp and store your food properly. If you encounter a bear, give it plenty of room. Report all mountain lion and black bear sightings to a Ranger. See Wildlife Precautions page for further information.

The standard entry fee, of $20.00/ 7 days, covers all people traveling in a non-commercial, privately-used vehicle. The fee for entry of individuals on motorcycles, bicycles, etc. is $5.00/ 7 days. Big Bend Annual Pass is $30.00, good for one year.

$14 per night ($5 per night for bearers of the Golden Age or Golden Access Passport), is charged for all campgrounds in the park.

Chisos Basin Campground is open year-round. It offers 63 campsites. Flush toilets, running water, grills, and picnic tables are available. No hook-ups. Elevation is 5,400′. Due to the narrow, winding road to the Basin, and small campsites, trailers over 20′ and RV’s over 24′ are not recommended at this campground. Reservations are available for 26 sites November 15 to April 15. Call 1-877-444-6777. Big Bend National Park cannot make reservations.

The Chisos Basin Campground has six group camp sites that are available only by advance reservation. The total overnight occupancy for the Chisos Basin group campground is 118 persons. All sites in this campground have a minimum occupancy of 10 persons. Sites L, P, Q, and R hold a maximum of 20 persons each. The following sites N and O hold a maximum occupancy of 14 persons each. Site M has a maximum occupancy of 10 persons. Tents larger than 8′ X 8′ are not recommended because of site layout; however, sites P, Q, and R can accommodate larger tents if necessary. Sites P, Q, and R have shade ramadas.

Cottonwood Campground is open all year with 31 campsites. Pit toilets, picnic tables, grills, and water are available. No Hook-ups or dump station is available. No generators are allowed. Elevation is at 1,900′. The Cottonwood Campground has one group camp site that is available only by advance reservation. Maximum occupancy for this group campground is 25 persons. Minimum capacity is 10 persons. This group campground is walk-in tent camping only. Vehicle parking is restricted to an adjacent parking area. To reserve the group campsite, call 1-877-444-6777.

Rio Grande Village Campground is open year-round. This 100 site campground has flush toilets, running water, picnic tables, grills, and some overhead shelters. Dump Station nearby; No hook-ups. Elevation is 1,850′. Reservations for 43 sites may be made November 15 to April by calling 1-877-444-6777. Group reservations can be made at this same number. The Rio Grande Village Campground has four group camp sites that are available only by advance reservation. The total overnight occupancy for the Rio Grande Village group campground is 120 persons. All sites in this campground have a minimum occupancy of 10 persons. Sites A and B comprise the area on the east side of the comfort station. Maximum occupancy for each site is 20 persons. Sites C and D comprise the area on the west side of the comfort station. Maximum occupancy for each site is 40 persons. This group campground is walk-in tent camping only. Vehicle parking is restricted to an adjacent parking area.

There is a concession-operated trailer park for RV campsites, and sites are available on a first-come, first-served basis.
Big Bend’s backcountry offers ample opportunity of exploration and solitude. Backcountry campsites are available along the unpaved roads and along the trails in the Chisos Mountains, all year long. Since the Chisos are the most popular hiking area in the park, designated campsites help reduce damage to this delicate environment. There is no charge to use these sites, but a backcountry permit is required. Some of these are Juniper Flats Campground located 1 mile from the Basin trailhead via the Pinnacles trail, Emory Peak Campground approximately 3.7 miles from Basin trailhead via the Pinnacles Trail and Emory Peak Trail, Northeast Rim campsites located between 6 to 7.5 miles from the Chisos Basin Trailhead via the Pinnacles Trail, Laguna Meadow campsites located 3.5 miles from the Basin trailhead via the Laguna Meadow Trail, Boulder Meadow located 1½ mile from the Basin trailhead via the Pinnacles trail, Boot Canyon located in Boot Canyon, 4.5 miles from the Chisos Basin Trailhead via the Pinnacles Trail, and Southeast Rim campsites located between 6.5 to 8 miles from the Chisos Basin Trailhead via either the Pinnacles/Boot Canyon or Laguna Meadows Trails. There are several more areas available.

For those who wish to camp in the backcountry without having to backpack, Big Bend offers a number of primitive campsites along backcountry roads. Most sites are located in the desert and along the River Road. There are no primitive roadside campsites in the Chisos Mountains. While some sites are accessible to most vehicles, a high clearance and/or four wheel drive vehicle is necessary to reach others. Other than a nice view, isolation, and a flat gravel space, these sites offer no amenities. There is a $10.00 permit fee for these sites; a backcountry permit is required.

Fort Davis National Historic Site is 125 miles away. Guadalupe Mountains National Park is 275 miles away. Carlsbad Caverns National Park is 305 miles away. Amistad National Recreation Area is 248 miles away. Chamizal National Memorial is 328 miles away. Rio Grande Wild & Scenic River is 0 miles. Big Bend Ranch State Park is 50 miles away. Barton Warnock Environmental Education Center is 30 miles away. Davis Mountains State Park is 130 miles away. Fort Leaton State Historic Site is 100 miles away. McDonald Observatory is 130 miles away.

The nearest airports served by major airlines are located in Midland/Odessa, Texas and El Paso, Texas. Rental cars are available at both airports.

Three paved roads lead to the park: 1) U.S. 385 from Marathon, TX to the north entrance, 2) State Route 118 from Alpine, TX to the west entrance, 3) Ranch Road 170 from Presidio to Study Butte, and then State Route 118 to the west entrance. Big Bend National Park headquarters is located 70 miles south of Marathon, TX and 108 miles from Alpine, TX via Hwy. 118.

There is no public transportation to or from the park. Amtrak serves Alpine, TX, 108 miles to the north. Bus service is available to Alpine and Marathon.

Approximate Mileage from the following major cities to Big Bend National Park:

By Car:

Marathon, TX- 68.07 miles

Alpine, TX – 98.28 miles

Midland, TX – 232.29 miles

Del Rio, TX – 240.98 miles

Odessa, TX – 210.52 miles

By Plane:

Midland/Odessa, TX – 230 miles (northeast entrance)

El Paso, TX 325 miles (northwest entrance)

Rental vehicles are also available

By Train:

Amtrak station is located in Alpine, Texas – 100 miles

By Bus:

Greyhound, Inc., Alpine, Texas – 100 miles (daily service)

Big Bend National Park, P.O. Box 129, Big Bend National Park, TX 79834

Headquarters 432-477-2251

Weather Information Hotline 432-477-1183

By Fax 432-477-1175

To go to page 1 click here.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument Visitor Center is open daily, year-round from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day weekend from 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. and after Labor Day to the following Memorial Day weekend from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. It is closed Christmas, New Years, and Thanksgiving Days. From Memorial through Labor Day weekends ranger conducted walks and talks are available on request and begin in the visitors center. Subjects covered during the walks may include geology, paleontology, botany, zoology, and ranching history. The Cook Collection and fossils are common topics of ranger talks. The park trails are closed at nightfall.

The visitor center houses three rooms of exhibits, the Hitchcock Theater and the Cook Collection Gallery. The life size fossil diorama depicts life and death at the Agate waterhole, 19.2 million years in the past. An interactive computer tour offers visitors a glimpse of things to be seen on the monument’s two trails. About 200 artifacts are displayed in The James H. Cook Collection Gallery, “A Window into Lakota Life.” Visitors can view special gifts given to the Cook family including a porcupine quilled tanned antelope ceremonial shirt worn by Chief Red Cloud, a memorable whetstone used by Chief Crazy Horse, and a war club used by Oglala leader American Horse at The Fetterman Massacre. Chief Red Cloud gave Cook a pipestone cannunpa (Lakota for pipe), which was used prior to negotiations of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. Two hide paintings were prepared for The Cook Collection exhibits by Lakota artists Dawn Little Sky and Martin Red Bear. The Running Water Winter Count hide painted by Dawn introduces visitors to the method that Lakota historians used to record events important to the people. Martin’s hide painting depicts events remembered by Lakota warrior participants in the 1876 Battle of the Greasy Grass or Battle of the Little Bighorn. This is a recreation of the faded original hide painting prepared by Lakota artists, including Martin’s grandfather, around 1898. A hands-on display area lets kids see and touch some of the resource items found at the park. Some of the items included in the display are bones, turtle shells, deer antlers, rocks, and rattlesnake skins.

Each summer, the staff at Agate continues the legacy of rancher James Cook by inviting American Indian artists back to the Niobrara Valley. In the past, artists have brought skills handed down to them such as creating beautiful bead and quill work, hide paintings, and decorated gourds.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument is located in a very remote area. A modern, covered picnic area with drinking fountains is located near the visitor center; and bottled water, juice, and soda pop are available from a vending machine inside.

The facilities at Agate are accessible by wheelchair. The interpretive exhibits, introductory film and information desk are located in the main room, ground level of the Visitor Center and Museum. Both hiking trails are steep in places and not entirely paved. The park has an interactive computer hiker in the Visitor Center and Museum that provides an excellent virtual tour of the trails. Agate’s introductory film, entitled “The Fossil Hills” is located in the Visitor Center’s Hitchcock Theater. The theater is accessible by wheelchair and the film is closed-caption for the hearing impaired.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument is a small park in the northwest corner of Nebraska, with only 2,700 acres of federally managed land included in the 3,050 acres within the park boundary. The park was created to preserve the rich fossil deposits and their geological contexts amidst today’s natural ecosystem. It was authorized in 1965, but not established until June 14, 1997.

Depending upon one’s cultural viewpoint, discovery will always have a direct connection to the scientific history of Agate. During the 1880s and moving into a new century, scientists would rediscover what the Lakota Sioux and others already knew about–bones preserved in what many paleontologists believe is one of the best preserved Miocene mammal sites in the world. Through the help of James and Kate Cook, the complex interactions between weather, mammals and the land would be studied by scientific field crews from places like Pittsburgh and New York City.

James Henry Cook was in his early teens when he ran away from his foster home to seek his fortune. James H. Cook was born on August 26, 1857, in Kalamazoo, Michigan. His mother died two years later. His father, sea captain Henry Cook, could not care for his two sons and placed each in a foster home. James H. Cook lived with the Titus family in Kalamazoo and ended his public education at age twelve. After working two years in a Comstock machine shop, he set off to pursue a life at sea. Two years as a sailor on the Great Lakes only whetted his appetite for adventure; he left the Great Lakes to see the interior of the continent on his way to the Gulf of Mexico.

On his journey, Cook met some Midwestern cattlemen who persuaded him to abandon the sea for the lucrative cattle business. Enamored by the rough, independent lifestyle of the frontier cowboy, young Cook agreed and accompanied the cattlemen to southwest Texas. For five years, James H. Cook worked on a ranch under the guidance of Mexican vaqueros learning to herd wild cattle out of the brush, break horses, hunt, shoot, and track. In the early 1870s, he participated in the first cattle drives to Kansas and Nebraska helping establish the Ogalala, White Swan Agency, Plum Creek, and Red Cloud trails.

In 1874 and 1875, Cook first rode through western Nebraska to Wyoming before returning to Texas. He visited Fort Laramie and the Red Cloud Agency as well as other important frontier settlements. At the Red Cloud Agency, Cook stayed with Baptiste “Little Bat” Garnier who introduced Cook to Red Cloud, American Horse, Little Wound, and Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses—all of whom became lifelong friends and later visited the Cook ranch at Agate, Nebraska. It was during one of these trips that Cook first met one of the pioneer paleontologists of that era, Dr. O. C. Marsh of Yale University, at Fort Robinson. James H. Cook’s fascination with fossils grew as a result of his lengthy conversations with Dr. Marsh who became a close friend.

Cook was also an expert scout. He assisted the Texas Rangers pursue renegades. In 1876, at age nineteen, he scouted for the Fourth and Fifth U.S. Cavalry. His services were in especially great demand following the Battle of the Little Big Horn. Cook had been hunting near the Little Big Horn River and served as a trail scout for the Army troops following the massacre of Lt. Col. George A. Custer’s command.

Cook returned to Texas for the great cattle drives of 1877 and 1878, at which time he decided he wanted to be a hunter and trapper. In Cheyenne, Wyoming, James H. Cook formed a partnership with “Wild Horse Charley” to provide wild game for the booming town. Cook outfitted, managed, and guided many big game hunting excursions as well as expeditions of scientists and explorers. In 1877, James H. Cook explained to Chief Red Cloud that his friend O. C. Marsh was actually searching for bones and not for gold as so many other white men were doing. Red Cloud gave Marsh, dubbed “Man-That-Picks-Up-Bones,” permission to hunt for fossils in the Badlands of South Dakota. Cook learned from these early paleontologists an appreciation of their discipline and the significance of fossil discoveries to science.

In the fall of 1882, James H. Cook went to New Mexico with two British big game clients to establish a ranch. Cook assisted in buying land and cattle for the new W S Ranch in Alma, New Mexico, a venture in which Cook himself invested. The W S grew to about 60,000 cattle. Cook organized the first stock-growers’ association in New Mexico and directed the first general cattle roundup in the region. A leader for law and order, Cook served in the campaign against Geronimo’s terrorizing band of Apaches. Although never enlisting, he was chief scout for the Eighth U.S. Cavalry under Major S. S. Sumner in 1885. Since that time he used the honorary title of “Captain.”

In 1886 he married Kate Graham in Cheyenne, WY. He purchased land in 1887 and established the first ranch on the Niobrara River. Cook’s work as a mediator between Indian tribes earned him respect and friendship among several Indian tribes. Gifts from these friends resulted in a large collection of Plains Indian articles, now on display at the monument. James Cook died in 1942. The Visitor Center is on land that his family owned.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument is nestled in the Niobrara River Valley in Nebraska 65 miles [110 km] east-southeast of its headwaters in the Hat Creek Breaks of Wyoming. The park preserves a unique unglaciated area of the High Plains. Wetlands stretch out from the river and meet terraces that lead to the breaks and buttes. The buttes contain important information about the life of mammals in the Miocene Era, some 20 million years ago.

The park takes its name from thin lenses of agate (White River Silicate Group) in the area, which range in color from amber to light gray. Miocene-age rocks are exposed in the park in the bluffs above the Niobrara River wetlands and contain an excellent fossil record. Much of the geologic history is recorded in the natural features found at the park today.

During the Miocene the land now known as Agate was a grass savanna comparable to today’s Serengeti Plains in Africa. Twenty million years ago animals such as the Dinohyus (giant pig-like animal), Stenomylus (small gazelle-camel), and Menoceras (short rhinoceros) roamed the plains. There were also carnivorous beardogs wandering around, and the land beaver Paleocastor dug spiral burrows that remain as today’s trace fossils (Daemonelix) into the ancient riverbanks. There are remnants of the ancient grasses and hoof prints of prehistoric animals in Miocene sediments preserved in the park, as well as layers of fossilized bones.

The Rocky Mountains were uplifted in many pulses of deformation between millinea ago. Sediments from the uplifting mountains were initially deposited near the mountains and then later transported by rivers eastward onto what eventually became the Great Plains. This river-borne silt was accompanied by wind-borne volcanic ash from eastern Nevada and western Utah, and the fine grained ash rich sediments were deposited in vast sheets called the White River beds. The earliest documented bedrock at Agate dates to the Oligocene era, but most of Agate’s Oligocene deposits are well buried beneath later Miocene deposits. Oligocene-era beds are well exposed at Badlands National Park, 130 miles northeast of Agate.

During the early Miocene era, streams in the area that now includes Agate Fossil Beds National Monument shifted and cut down to produce valleys. These valleys were later filled in with sediments as the Great Plains continued to build up or aggrade. Aggradation resulted in the formation of wide savannas during the Miocene, those savannas being dotted with small water holes and the whole landscape populated with herds of animals (e.g., chalicotheres, rhinoceroses, entelodonts, beardogs, land beavers, camels, horses, pocket gophers). Ongoing research is documenting the grass species present on the ancient savanna. A major drought occurred in the Agate area during the Early Miocene. It is believed that when many of the drought-stricken and exhausted animals came to the remaining water holes in an effort to survive, the animals collapsed and died in and around the water. As the muddy water dried, the fossil beds were formed. Agate’s older fossil layer is about 21 million years old and covered by a layer of ash, and its younger bed is 20 million years old. These layers are in what are now called the Harrison and Marsland Formations.

In the last five million years the High Plains have continued to uplift to their current elevation of about 4,400 feet and the savannas have changed to the grasslands of today. During the uplifting process rivers and streams have meandered across the plains and eroded the older deposits, forming the bluffs and valleys that we see today.

The modern Niobrara Valley at Agate is a complex array of Late Pleistocene and Holocene geomorphology, stratigraphy, and paleosols reflecting significant climate variations over the past 12,000-15,000 years. Current research in the park is providing radiocarbon dates for the middle to late Holocene materials, documenting thousand-year-or less fluctuations between warm and cooler climates and varying amounts of annual moisture.

The agates that give the park its name are found in a thin band along ash deposits just above the Miocene bone beds, and range in color from amber to light gray. This stone is a variety of quartz (silicon dioxide) called chalcedony. Iron, manganese, and/or aluminum inclusions in the original silica deposits give the agate different colors in various locations, and often form dendritic “moss” patterns in the material.

The Niobrara River wanders through Agate creating about eleven miles of river habitat within the park. Among the natural communities of plants and animals existing in the high plains ecosystem, none is as lush or rich in animal life as the riparian community. Riparian zones are the lush belts of vegetation found along rivers and wetlands. The river banks play a vital role in the plant and animal communities as well as the water quality of the river.

The reach of the Niobrara River within the park is unconfined, meaning it meanders or bends throughout a wide flood plain and changes course relatively often. The flood plain of the Niobrara is a quarter-mile wide in places. This creates an interesting landscape of river twists and turns and oxbow ponds and sloughs filled with cattails, irises, reeds and water loving plants and a great environment for a diverse variety of wildlife. Oxbow ponds are the horseshoe shaped ponds that are the result of a very sharp bend being cut off from the river. Along the river banks, reeds and cattails grow tall and hang over the river providing shade to keep the water cool and reduce the amount of evaporation during hot days.

Though the Niobrara River is the only continuously flowing water in the park there are several ephemeral tributaries to the river. Tributaries are streams that run into and contribute water to a river or larger stream. Ephemeral streams are streams that only flow after a major rain event and can be identified by dry channels in depressions between hills. These are the types of areas in which flash floods can occur that cause death and destruction of property. Though the streams rarely flow and do not flow for very long, they are erosive, sometimes carrying large amounts of sediment to the river. Sediment, soil and sand material that is suspended in the flow of the water deposits when flow slows down, when there is less water or when the water is spread over a greater area.

A major source of water for the Niobrara in and around the park is ground water, water that is stored in and released from aquifers and reservoirs. These large, underground reservoirs can be refilled by rainfall if water can infiltrate that far into the ground. Groundwater naturally comes to the surface through seeps and springs but is also brought up by wells. A spring is a place where groundwater flows naturally from the soil or rock formation onto the land surface or into a body of surface water. Seeps are similar but are usually less defined and do not flow as springs do; here they are characterized by creating a marshy area near the river. There is little specific information known about Agate’s groundwater but park staff are currently involved in projects to learn more to be able to better manage groundwater use.

The river running through the park creates a special prairie habitat that is not seen in drier areas. The meandering river creates about 200 acres of riparian area which is the greener, wetter areas near a stream where specialized plants grow. Plants such as willows, reeds, sedges and wild licorice thrive in the riparian areas. Willows and other water-loving shrubs and trees provide browse for white-tail deer. The riparian area also provides home for salamanders and frogs that need more moisture than the dry uplands provide. Park staff carefully monitor and manage the riparian area to restore it to its natural condition by controlling non-native plant species such as the Canada thistle.

Many species of native grasses and shrubs grow across the park’s landscape, as well as some undesirable non-native plants (e.g., Canada thistle) that the park does its best to control. Agate was created to preserve the fossils of Miocene era mammals, but has preserved the prairie as well. The wetland and riparian areas offer a look at water-loving plants that are not always seen in the prairie. Vegetation plays a vital role in the ecosystem. Plants capture particulate dust in the air, filter gaseous pollutants, convert carbon dioxide to oxygen, provide animal habitat and food, and possess many raw materials useful to humans.

The semiarid climate of the Great Plains area has led to the evolution of the grasslands. Agate is a mixed grass prairie, meaning it is a mixture of tall and short grasses growing together. The mixed grass prairie extends from North Dakota through South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, central Oklahoma and the north-central part of Texas. Prairies have semiarid climates with high seasonal fluctuation and yearly fluctuations. Most precipitation is received during the growing season; at Agate this is from April to June. Agate averages 15 inches of precipitation a year but during droughts this can be as low as 9 inches or less. Another characteristic of prairies is their flat to rolling terrain and fertile soil rich in organic matter. The climate and soils promote the growth of grasses, not trees which require more water.

Agate displays the rich diversity of the prairie grassland that includes more than just grasses in three distinct areas of the park. The broad floodplain of the Niobrara River has created a riparian area for water-loving plants like cottonwoods, fox tail barley, cattails, reeds, sedges, yellow Siberian irises and blue flag irises. The buttes and hilltops are inhabited by plants that tolerate the drier, rocky conditions such as little blue stem grass, threadleaf sedge, sandhills muley and tufted milk vetch. In between the riparian area and the buttes is the area that most people think of as prairie. This area is inhabited by western, slender, and crested wheat grasses, Blue grama grass, thread leaf sedge and needle and thread grass.

The prairie is not known for its abundance of trees, but with over 200 acres of wetlands, cottonwoods grow well at Agate. There are also several shrubs at Agate including buffalo berry, willows, and sumac. Trees and shrubs grow mostly in the wetland areas but sumac is found in the prairie. Shrubs can be distinguished by size, though some shrubs grow very tall, and by the number of branches. Trees generally have one main stem or trunk, while shrubs have several stems growing upwards with shoots coming off.

The riparian area supports many large cottonwoods and smaller willows. The cottonwoods provide vital habitat for wildlife such as red-tailed hawks, Swearinger’s hawks, great horned owls, and some species of bats. The trees also shade the waters of the Niobrara River, keeping them cool, allowing more oxygen in the water for fish. The willows serve a similar purpose, providing cover and food for rodents and shading the river.

Sumac is found on the hillsides throughout the park and is most common in disturbed areas. Buffalo berry bushes are also found in the park, but are most common near the Visitor’s Center and Museum. Both are used by rabbits and rodents as shelter from the wind and to hide from predators. Deer do occasionally browse on the shrubs but the plants are adapted to survive and recover quickly.

Agate supports several species of grasses, which are mostly found on the slopes and buttes throughout the park, but a few species are found in the wetter, riparian areas. As a mixed grass prairie, Agate’s grasses are generally less than four feet tall. All grasses are of the family Poaceae, also called Gramineae, which is considered the third largest family of flowering plants in the world. The grass family includes many production crop species such as corn, rice, wheat, and sugarcane. Grasses can be distinguished from other plants by their hollow, herbaceous stem, narrow leaves with parallel veins, and small flowers.

The leaves of grasses are specialized to cope with the arid environments they inhabit. As wind blows across plant leaves, it takes valuable moisture from the plant. Grasses have vertical leaves to minimize this loss while maximizing surface area for photosynthesis. Another adaptation grasses have made for environment is their rooting systems. Roots are extensive, which allows the plants to absorb moisture from different layers of the ground and to limit competition. Based on rooting types, grasses can be divided into two groups, bunch grasses and sod forming grasses.

Sod is created by grasses growing close together with an abundance of small roots and shoots that reproduce into new plants. These shoots are called rhizomes when below ground and stolons when above ground. Extensive roots serve two purposes, to anchor the plant against the wind and to block out competition from other species. Sod forming grasses are usually dominant in the wetter years and in wetter areas. Bunch grasses tend to thrive in drier years and drier areas due to their spacing. Bunch grasses grow in scattered clumps with more space in between plants to limit competition for soil nutrients and water. Sod houses were built by early homesteaders in this area as shelters due to the lack of trees and other building materials. Sod is the upper stratum of soil held together by grass roots. It was cut out of the ground into long brick-shaped sections and piled to construct the homes.

Cheat grass or downy brome grass is a sod forming grass that was introduced from Europe in the 1800s and often takes over areas disturbed by grazing and fire. Cheat grass is present in a few disturbed sites of earlier homesteaders. Crested wheat grass is an introduced bunch grass from Russia but is found in scattered locations throughout the park. The thread leaf sedge, a grass-like species that is not a true grass is prominent at Agate and serves as part of the prairie grassland system.

Wildflowers are as much a part of the prairie as the grasses. There is a diverse variety of flowers that bloom at Agate from April to November with colors including shades of yellow, white, blue and pink. The flowers provide food for insects that also pollinate the flowers by moving from place to place.

Flowers have several adaptations for living in the semiarid environment at Agate. The prickly poppy, Platte and Flodman thistle all display wonderful flowers but are prickly to deter deer, rodents and other browsers from chewing on them. Some plants such as the yucca and cacti have waxy coatings over the stem and leaves to limit the amount of water loss in the heat of the day. The evening primrose and the yucca both avoid the heat of the day by flowering in the evening. Species also survive dry times as seeds that germinate after light rains or as bulbs that grow up quickly after moisture.

The best time to see the wildflowers at Agate is in the early spring, from April to May, but there is almost always a flower blooming. One of the most spectacular bloomers is the Siberian yellow iris that fills the wetlands in June with large, yellow flowers. These irises are not native to the United States, but were introduced by James Cook in the late 1800’s when he established the ranch house near the west border of the monument. Prickly pear cacti have medium sized yellow flowers in June and July. One of the first flowers to appear in early April is the western wall flower with a big ball of yellow flowers. In August, the sunflowers dot the landscape with medium sized yellow flowers while the rocky mountain bee plant has a ball of small purple flowers. Agate is a great place to look at wildflowers anytime of year.

Agate offers a wide variety of activities for its visitors. From the dramatic displays to the breath-taking trails – there’s something for everyone.

Visitors to Agate Fossil Beds have a unique opportunity to explore both the natural and cultural wonders of the park through interpretive exhibits and hiking trails. In 1998, the National Park Service completed a long-term project of interpretive exhibit design for the Visitor Center and Museum. In the main room of the park’s museum, visitors can look at reproductions of Miocene mammal skeletons, an original slab of bones taken from the fossil hills, and a number of interactive exhibits describing early field excavations, animal behavior, and bone analysis. The Visitor Center/Museum also features an information desk, theater with 12 minute movie, two exhibit galleries, and a bookstore, all overlooking the Niobrara River and its distinctive bluffs.

After the Dinosaurs: A feeling of “then and now” radiates from a life-size diorama of the mounted skeletons (replicas) of the more unusual fossil animals discovered at Agate, and occupies the entire south side of the main gallery in front of three large windows. Other displays focus on other real or replica fossils found in the area and invite interaction on the part of the viewer to think like a scientist. Featured are such beasts as the “terrible pig” Dinohyus, the long necked, claw-toed Moropus, snarling beardogs, and dwarf rhinos in abundance.

The James Cook Gallery of Lakota culture is also on display in the Visitor Center and Museum. This gallery is an awesome tribute to Cook’s friendship with old friends such as Red Cloud and American Horse. Indians often visited him at his ranch and gave him gifts from the early reservation years, including fancy beaded or quilled moccasins, Indian games, a painted hide of the Custer Battle, guns, decorated clubs, a dog travois, and much more. Visitors are often taken with the beauty of the bead and quill work or reflect upon the stories of life and culture through artifacts inside the gallery. Black and white photos of Cook’s visitors, a sound track by traditional singer Bill Horn Cloud, and a colorful, contemporary “wintercount” or historical calendar, create a mood for this special collection not to be missed by admirers of indigenous culture.

For those with more time, short hikes from one to three miles allow the opportunity to explore the natural history of the Niobrara River Valley and its current and past wildlife. Two trails lead to the north and south rim of the valley and to the sites where fossils have been found. The Daemonelix Trail has exhibits encasing actual fossils, while the Fossil Hills Trail currently does not. Cross-country hiking is allowed, but be watchful of rattlesnakes.

Fossil Hills Trail is a two and a half mile trail that crosses the Niobrara River wetlands (just a stream in these parts) and loops around University and Carnegie Hills, where the great bone-bed of Agate was discovered in 1904. Signs point out certain historic and geologic features and identify plants along the way. A side trail (one mile) leads to the restored 1910 homestead of Harold Cook, which was later used by the scientists as their “Bone Cabin” while working the fossil quarries.

Daemonelix Trail is a one mile trail that travels through time, including ancient sand dunes and fossil grassland soils, as well as the curious spiral burrows (Devil’s Corkscrews) of dry land beavers. Their now petrified homes formed colonies much like current prairie dogs and attracted early scientists to this region. The view from the top overlooking the historic Agate Springs Ranch and the surrounding tableland is superb and reflects the vast openness of the land east of the Rocky Mountains.

For bird watchers, the park’s two hiking trails are great for observing over 140 bird species that migrate through or call Agate home. Both trails, the Fossil Hills and the Daemonelix provide an excellent opportunity to see the wildlife, wildflowers and the geology of the Niobrara Valley.

Fishing is allowed with a state license, but the park is not known for good fishing.

Children visiting Agate Fossil Beds National Monument are invited to participate in the Junior Ranger program. Participants roam the Visitor Center in search of answers to questions on fossils, geology, and the Cook Collection of Native American artifacts. When finished, the activity book is signed, stamped, and returned to the participant along with a badge signifying them as an official Agate Fossil Beds National Monument Junior Ranger.

The rich environment of the prairie is dependant upon the people who manage it. The staff at Agate strives to study the landscape and develop a plan to manage the Monument to preserve its ecological and cultural history and restore the native prairie habitat.

Environmental factors, such as weather, and other natural cycles play an important part in shaping the park landscape, dictating the plant and animal species that survive in this area. Agate is located in rural northwest Nebraska surrounded by ranches that produce beef, alfalfa and hay. In this setting, the park is concerned with water quality due to ongoing irrigation upstream and fertilizer application. At this time this has not been a problem. Other park concerns are noxious weeds that include cheatgrass and Canada thistle. The park also monitors weather and observes air quality.

Agate has a Remote Access Weather Station (RAWS) that records hourly temperature, humidity, wind speed, maximum wind speed, wind direction, precipitation, and fuel stick temperature and moisture. Based on data from 1997 through 2002 (NPS 2002), Agate temperatures range from a maximum of 95°F. to 104°F. from June-August, to a December-February minimum of -5°F to -22°. The mean annual precipitation at the park is 10.91″ with most of it falling from January to August, but during that period in 2002 only 5.85″ were recorded. The prevailing winds are from the northwest, west, or southwest, but have been recorded from all other directions at various times. Maximum annual wind speeds of 43-50 mph occur from November through February, but 49-50 mph winds have been recorded in May. There is no reliable record for the wind being calm at any recorded time.

The Niobrara River valley and its included wetlands through the Agate Fossil Beds National Monument are incised some 250′ below the surrounding tablelands. The prevailing northwesterly and westerly winds across these tablelands are often drier and warmer than the air down in the valley, resulting in local inversions that hold cool moist air in the valley. For example, from 1 October 2001 through 28 February 2002, Agate’s daily RAWS-recorded humidity reached 100% 40 nights, about 25% of the time, with most of the humidity in October and November.

Quality of water is enhanced by the riparian areas as the two are interdependent. Trees and shrubs shade the water, reducing evaporations and keeping water cooler which is beneficial to aquatic life. Overall, the water quality at Agate is good, having low levels of nitrates and phosphates that are monitored through yearly sampling. Agate also monitors water quality using by observing macroinvertebrates (insects and other arthropods) that live in the water. Macroinvertebrates are sensitive to pollution and extreme flow fluctuation, so a decrease in species diversity can indicate a problem with the water quality. The Niobrara River is not extremely large at Agate, generally only about 8.25 feet (2.5 meters) wide and flows at around eleven cubic feet per second.

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) is a problem weed for many areas. Originating from Eurasia and North Africa, it was brought to Canada in contaminated crop seed in the mid to late eighteenth century. From Canada the thistle spread south into the northern United States and onto the Great Plains. It is found in Wyoming, Nebraska, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Colorado and many other states today. Canada thistle has been designated a noxious weed in Nebraska since 1873. It competes with natural prairie species and planted cropland species. Wheat yields can be decreased 65% and corn yields 35% by severe thistle infestations. Cattle avoid areas with prickly thistles, causing a loss in carrying capacity of infested pastures.

Canada thistle is most likely to occur in moist environments with previous disturbances, such as in pastures, range land, crop land, ditch banks, road sides, mud flats, lake shores and stream banks. Approximately 450,000 such areas are infested with Canada thistle across Nebraska, with the majority being in the panhandle region. They have implemented an intensive thistle control program at Agate.

Canada thistle can reproduce in two ways, which makes it very difficult to control and is the reason it has become so wide spread. This perennial forb spreads through seed production as well as by creeping roots known as rhizomes. Canada thistle is dioecious, meaning each plant contains all male or all female flowers. However, a population of all males or all females can sustain itself and spread through the extensive lateral root system. Cultivation (tilling, plowing) only causes the thistle population to increase due to the plants ability to reproduce from as little as 1/2″ of root.

Plants appear at Agate in early to mid-May as small rosettes of spiney-tipped, wavy leaves. The plant grows vigorously until flowering in July or August. At this time stems are one to four feet tall and rigid with several branches. Plants remain green until the first frost, when the above ground portion dies, but the roots remain until the following spring.

The thistle disturbs the natural, scenic qualities of the park and spreads to neighboring pastures. Canada thistle is believed to have entered Agate around 1970. It spread through out the wetland and lower terraces of the monument. In 1996 it was estimated that approximately 100 acres where infested with thistle. This signaled the need for action.

Agates’ first biological thistle control agents were released in May 1997. One hundred and forty-eight stem mining weevils (Ceutorhynchus litura) were released near the Bone Cabin, west of the Visitors Center and Museum. In early spring the weevils inject eggs into the young thistle shoots, and the eggs hatch into larvae by mid-May. The larvae mine the thistle stem, root crown, and roots, weakening the plant by using nutrients. This inhibits the thistles’ ability to produce seeds and grow roots. The larvae then chew an exit hole near the base of the plant and move into the soil to pupate. The exit hole leaves the plant susceptible to secondary infestation of ants, fungi and other insects. The weevil overwinters as an adult in the soil near the base of the plant. It emerges in March and April to again lay eggs in the thistle until mid-May when the plants are too large to be easily penetrated by the weevil. A female can lay 120 eggs in young shoots. Six to seven larvae are needed in the shoots to effectively weaken the plant.

In 1998, Agate located a second release site near the boardwalk on the south side of the river. At each, the new site and the original site, 125 stem mining weevils were released. A new species, the stem and shoot gall fly (Urophora cardui), was also released at both sites. These were still in the larval stage, contained in galls. A gall is a round growth or tumor on a stem caused by irritation from larvae. Galls can contain zero to ten living gall fly larvae. The larvae begin to pupate in warm, spring temperatures and emerge from the galls as adults in late spring or early summer. The flies then lay one to 30 eggs in young shoots. After the egg hatches, larvae tunnel into the stem, creating the gall. The fly over winters in the gall as a larvae. In 2000, five additional insect releases were created in the wetland areas between the Bone Cabin and the west park boundary with 2,000 gall flies and 440 stem mining weevils released at those sites.

In addition to biological control of Canada thistle, Agate uses mowing and herbicides. Areas of dense infestations are mowed from late July to mid-August to prevent the plant from seeding. Herbicides are then applied mid-September after the first hard frost. The park is currently using Telar µ, containing chlorosulfuron, which is approved for non-cropland use, and is used in small amounts. It does not leach deep into the soil, is practically nontoxic to most fish and aquatic invertebrates, and does not bioaccumulate (build up) in fish. Telar is also shown to be nontoxic to birds and mammals. Agate has had a contract with the Sioux County Weed Superintendent to spray the Telar µ annually since 1999. Telar is applied after the first frost, when the thistle begins to go dormant for the winter and draws moisture and nutrients into the roots which brings the herbicide with it, reducing the roots ability to spread the following spring. Approximately 40 acres are mowed and have herbicides applied annually.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument has experienced success in its efforts to control its exotic Canada Thistle populations. Staff estimates that from 1996 though 2002 there was a 70% reduction in Canada Thistle population across the park. The project is documented in the parks Geographic Information System (GIS) and in reports on file. New methods of control are being evaluated including new biological control agents, prescribed burns, and different herbicides.

It is generally sunny and dry in the summer, with occasional afternoon thundershowers and temperatures can get as high as 95-100 degrees F. The weather is windy and cold in the winter with winds up to 50 mph. It can be windy on any given day in the Monument. Wear comfortable clothing appropriate to the season. Hats are useful against exposure to sun. Good walking shoes are recommended for use on hiking trails.

Current Park Weather

Horses are allowed in the park. However, riders must stay on non-developed trails and service roads while in the park. Also, the National Park Service prohibits riders from using the two main parking areas (Visitor Center and Daemonelix trail-head) to saddle horses. Visitors who wish to ride horses can park and saddle in the Fishing Access parking lot located west of the Visitor Center and Museum. Please call the Visitor Center and Museum for further details.

Bicycles are prohibited on park trails and service roads.

Dogs are not allowed in the visitor center but are allowed on the trails on a leash. Please respect the wildlife and other visitors.

This is a remote area so come prepared. The nearest town is 22 miles. There are drinks available in the Visitor Center, but no food. The monument is generally windy so come prepared for these conditions and dress appropriately if you are coming in cooler weather. Layers are better to protect you against wind chill factors.

Numerous mammals, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds inhabit or pass through the park, undisturbed and protected. The vast space of Agate’s prairie seems empty to some, but a closer look reveals a rich ecosystem of beetles, rabbits, deer, amphibians, snakes and more. Agate is home to a diverse variety of wildlife, though it’s not always easy to find. In addition to animals that make their home year round at Agate, there are migratory birds, butterflies and moths as well as carnivores whose large range incorporates the park.

At dusk the park comes to life. Coyotes come out in search of a meal, their yelps and howls filling the quiet nights. Several species of bats inhabit the park and prey on the abundant miller moths. Nighthawks swoop through the air in hopes of catching a mosquito. In the cool hours of the morning, white tail deer, mule deer and pronghorn browse while snapping turtles prowl the waters of the Niobrara in search of young pike and brown trout.

Birds are the most visible type of wildlife at Agate. At least 73 bird species have been identified in the park, including some year round residents such as the ring neck pheasant and the sharp-tailed grouse, and others such as the orchard oriole or wood duck are only present during the summer. Migratory birds that rest here on their way to other destinations include Canada geese and Sandhill cranes.

Agate’s bird diversity is in part due to the Niobrara River, which creates an extensive wetland and riparian area in the park. This area is moister and cooler than the upland areas and attracts birds such as the red winged blackbird, that are easily identified by their jet black bodies and red or yellow wing patches. Marsh wrens, killdeer, belted kingfisher, blue heron, and Northern rough-winged swallows also frequent the wetland areas, making this the most diverse bird area on the park. Blue herons are a large, graceful crane-like bird, whose back and wings are a blue-gray giving the heron its name. They stand up to 52” tall and wade in the river and ponds in search of fish.

The grassy upland prairie area is above the wetlands, below the rocky buttes along the park trails and roads. The grasses provide cover for the birds and their nests, which are often built on the ground. In this area visitors commonly sight lark sparrows, western meadowlarks, ring neck pheasant, horned larks and grasshopper sparrows. Meadowlarks are medium size, perching birds with dusty brown wings and a bright yellow chest.

The third distinct bird habitat type is the rocky bluffs, where the ancient mammal fossils are found. Birds such as the rock wrens, lark sparrows and cliff swallows inhabit these areas. Cliff swallows build mud nests under rock outcroppings and can be identified by their dark wings and tail, rust-colored rump, chestnut throat and whitish belly. Rock wrens nest under overhanging rocks or in crevices between rocks and line their nests with feathers, wool and grasses. They are small brownish tan birds that spend most of their time in drier, rocky areas.

Agate has a few birds of prey that are year round residents of the park and a few that are seasonally present. The red tailed hawks are year round residents with a nest near the Niobrara, but search the entire western end of the park for food. Great horned owls nest year round in trees at the west end of the park, but are seen throughout the park during the night while they search for rodents. Summer residents include golden eagles, barn owls, prairie falcons and Swainson’s hawks. Winter residents are rough-legged hawk, short-eared owls and occasionally bald eagles.

The Niobrara River wanders through Agate creating about eleven miles of river habitat within the park. The slow moving water is home to at least ten species of fish, some of which are native and some are from intentional and unintentional stocking. Fisheries in the National Park Service have evolved over the years as people learn the importance of all native species. Native species are those species that occurred pre-Euroamerican settlement of an area and were not introduced from other areas of the world.

Fisheries History Stocking, the practice of releasing hatchery raised fish into a stream, is commonly used to enhance fisheries around the world and has been used in the United States for over a century. Since 1929 the Niobrara has been stocked in Sioux County, near Agate, with rainbow and brown trout. In later years, brook trout, black bullhead and lake trout were also stocked, but these species did not reproduce and were not repeatedly stocked. Within the park, rainbow and brown trout were stocked until 1997 when the park decided to stop local introduction of non-native fish.

In the fall of 1965, the State of Nebraska made an effort to remove non-game fish from the Niobrara to increase trout populations. The chemical Rotenone® was put in from the Niobrara at the Wyoming state line down river to the Box Butte Dam, including the Agate reach. Rotenone® was commonly used to eliminate all fish species from a section of river to reduce competition for stocked fish. In the spring following the treatment fingerling and adult rainbow and brown trout were released. Rotenone® is still used in fisheries for population controls but has not been applied to this section of the Niobrara since 1965.

Species Information Fisheries surveys conducted in 1979 and 1989 at several locations within Agate Fossil Beds verified the presence of nine fish species. At least one species (northern pike) has migrated into the park since the surveys and two other species were found downstream of the park.

Though rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were stocked in large numbers at Agate, they did not survive here. In the 1979 and 1989 surveys, none were found, sighted or reported caught. Most likely the rainbows migrated to more desirable sections of the river. During the 1989 survey, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and blue gill (Lepomis macrochirur) were found at the Agate Springs Ranch, which borders the park upstream. Though these two species would most likely spread to the park and could already be present, neither is native to the Niobrara.

The native species of the park generally do not feed on other fish as the non-natives do. They feed mostly on insects and algae, are smaller in size than the non-native species, and tolerate a wide range of temperatures. Northern pike pose a threat to native populations due to their excessive predatation, which native fish are not adapted to survive. There are several additional species of minnows that were probably native to the Niobrara but are currently absent from the main stem though still found in small tributaries. It is possible that these do not occur due to predatation from trout or pike in the river channel.

The non-native brown trout was once abundant at Agate but has seen a population decrease in recent times. They are large, hardy fish that can reach over 30 pounds. They feed on invertebrates (mostly insects) and smaller fish. Brown trout are identified by prominent spots on their back and sides, often red or orange and accented with halos and a tail fin generally free of spots. Introduced from Europe in 1883, browns make their home in cold water streams across the northeast and western United States. Though it is not a native, it is a naturalized species – meaning it has adapted to the stream and reproduces unlike the rainbow. The decrease of the brown trout population could be the result of several factors, but is directly connected with the lack of stocking since 1997.

A voracious newcomer to the park is the northern pike, which was probably introduced from Box Butte Reservoir, 38 miles downstream of Agate, as a result of the 1991 flood of the Upper Niobrara drainage system. Northern pike consume three to four times their weight in a year. They prey mostly on fish, including other pikes, but will consume frogs, small mammals, birds, and anything else they can catch. Their slim, trim cylindrical body and deeply forked tail are designed for quick speed, and their elongated snout and sharp teeth are used to capture prey efficiently. The color pattern of the northern pike is distinguished by a pattern of horizontal rows of yellow to white bean shaped spots with an olive green to brown background. In some regions, the pike is prized by fishermen for its size, which can easily be over 10 pounds and up to 50, but at Agate there have not been any large specimens reported.

During the fish surveys of 1979 and 1989, the most commonly found fish at Agate was the creek chub. Chubs are widely distributed throughout the Great Plains, inhabiting rocky and sandy pools of headwaters, creeks and small rivers. They can tolerate temperature fluctuations from 32º – 49 º F (0º – 31º C) and can survive in isolated pools, but need flowing water to reproduce. Adult creek chubs can be identified by their size, usually 5” – 8” inches but up to12” in length, a dark blotch at the front of the dorsal (back) fin base and near the tail, and a large mouth with an upper jaw reaching beyond the eye.

Agate’s rich prairie environment provides year round homes for many species of mammals and seasonal hunting grounds for others. With over 30 species of mammals, visitors are sure to glimpse some of the more common ones such as the white tail and mule deer browsing on grasses and shrubs within the park. Small brownish gray cottontail rabbits thrive on the moist grass around the Visitor Center and Museum, while sandy colored jackrabbits blend in well with grass along the trails. Some of the others are more elusive and nocturnal.

Predators are animals that actively hunt for smaller animals. The predators at Agate include coyotes, swift foxes, red foxes, long tailed weasels, mink and badgers. Most predators are nocturnal, meaning they are active by night and are usually seen at dusk or early morning. Most predators hunt for rodents and other small mammals, insects, amphibians and birds.

Coyotes, red foxes and swift foxes belong to the family Canidae, which also includes domestic dogs and wolves. Coyotes prey upon small rodents, rabbits, and young or sick deer, sometimes hunting in small groups of two or three. It is not uncommon to sight one at dusk or very early in the morning crossing the prairie. Coyotes are dusty gray to light brown, weigh 20 to 50 pounds, run with their tails down and look very similar to a medium sized dog. The foxes are distinguished from coyotes by their smaller size, weighing 15 to 20 pounds, and their bushy tail. Red foxes tend to be red brown to a dull black with white in the tip of the tail and black paws while swift foxes have a pale buffy-yellow coat with black spots on either side of their snout and tip of tail. Red foxes maintain a mixed diet of small birds, rabbits, rodents, insects, berries and nuts. Swift foxes prefer a diet of small mammals but do feed on insects. Swift foxes are only rarely sighted in the park but are known to be in this area.

Minks, badgers and the long-tailed weasel belong to the family Mustelidae. They are characterized by a nocturnal, solitary lifestyle of eating small rodents, rabbits and aquatic life. Badgers are the largest of this family found in the area, weighing up to 25 pounds. The powerful burrowers hunt rodents and rabbits by using their large claws to dig up dens. Badgers are identified by a shaggy gray to brown coat, short bushy tail, white stripe on their face and dark colored feet. With thick fur, a loose tough hide, and heavy neck muscles to protect it as it bites, claws, and exudes (not spraying) a skunk-like musk, badgers are a formidable fighter. The smallest predator of the area is the long-tailed weasel that hunts small rodents up to the size of a jack rabbit. The long tail weasel’s body and head is 8” – 10” long, it has 4” – 6” tail, and it weighs around seven ounces. The home range of this weasel is about 30 – 40 acres and populations are rarely larger than 15 – 20 animals per square mile. The coat of the weasel is dark brown with a black tipped tail and whitish under body. Though rarely seen, weasels make their home at Agate Fossil Beds, nesting in abandoned burrows of other animals. Minks are larger than the weasel, weighing one to three pounds with a body length of 12” – 17”. Minks are rich dark brown with a white chin and occasionally white spots on the belly. Minks are excellent swimmers and prefer to live along river banks hunting frogs, rodents, birds and eggs.

Several species of bats make their home in the trees and rock cliffs of the park. Species may include the silver-haired bat, red bat, hoary bat, fringed myotis, and the long legged myotis. Bats are the only flying mammal, their hands being modified into a wing that extends from the forearm to the side of the body and the hind leg. Bats use a locating system known as echolocation. The bat emits a series of super-sonic sounds that bounce off objects giving the bat their location. This allows them to fly in complete darkness and still locate prey. All bats at Agate Fossil Beds are insectivorous, meaning they eat only insects, most preferring moths and beetles.

Rodents, rabbits and other small mammals are a vital source of food for predators, which include mammals as well as birds of prey such as hawks and bald eagles. Agate’s common small rodents are the pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, pocket mice, ground squirrels, masked shrew and voles. Rodents are characterized by having two long, sharp incisors on their upper jaw and two on their lower with a significant space between incisors and grinding teeth located in the back of the jaw. At least 15 rodent species are known to be within the park, making up half of the mammal species. As there are few trees at Agate, most rodents live in the ground in burrows and feed upon insects, nuts, fruits, grasses, and occasionally meats. Some are active during the cooler hours of the day, while others prefer only to be out at night. The beaver spend their time hidden in the willows and shrubs of the riparian areas. In the winter, you may notice breathing holes in the ice on the river. This is a good indication that beaver are in the area.

Similar to the rodents are the rabbits, which also possess large incisors on the upper jaw but have smaller less obvious lower incisors. Their ears are long and they have a short cottony tail. Visitors will most likely see a desert cottontail browsing or resting near the Visitor Center and Museum. The cottontails can be distinguished from the jack rabbits by their small bodies, weighing 1 – 2¾ pounds, and fluffy white tail. Jackrabbits have long ears and larger, slimmer bodies, and are rarely sighted except bouncing across the trails.

Another small mammal is the striped skunk, which is related to the weasel, mink, and badger but is considered a predator. Skunks are omnivorous, meaning they eat insects, plants and meats. They dine on insects, grubs, eggs and berries, and occasionally catch mice. Striped skunks are around the size of a house cat, black with white striped body and tail and spray a terrible odor if startled or scared. Though not related, the raccoon is similar in diet and behavior, but his body is larger, weighing 12 to 35 pounds, with a salt and pepper colored coat and a black and white ringed tail. Raccoons also have an omnivorous diet of fish, insects, berries and nuts. Both skunks and raccoons are nocturnal and solitary, spending their days in dens made of abandoned burrows, fallen trees, or rock clefts.

Hoofed grazers walk on two-part hooves formed by the third and fourth toes. The most commonly sighted of these animals are the white-tail and mule deer but pronghorns are occasionally seen, usually farther away from the Visitor Center and Museum. White-tails are easily identified by their fluffy white tails that wave while they bounce away. White-tails stand 3’ – 3½’ tall and weigh between 150 and 400 pounds. White-tails can run up to 40 mph and jump an impressive 30 ft. horizontally and 8½ ft. vertically. With a home range rarely over a mile wide, the white-tails at Agate spend most of their days browsing the forbs and shrubs of the wetland areas while spending hot mid-day hours resting hidden in the cattails and willows. Mule deer can be distinguished by large, mule-like ears, stockier bodies and they do not flag with their tail, meaning they do not hold it up as they run as white-tail deer usually do. Mule deer do not continually reside in the park, they wander onto neighboring fields and migrate to higher elevations during the hot summer months. Males of both species have antlers that are shed in January or February and re-grown through summer to be ready for the rut (breeding season) in November and December.

Quite different from the deer, pronghorns have evolved to live in the open environment. Their protruding eyes can see movement four miles away. They can sprint for 3 to 4 minutes at speeds up to 70 mph, settling into an easy cruise between 30 and 45 mph. Both sexes have horns, not antlers like deer that are shed yearly and re-grown. Pronghorns cover a large territory, about two to four square miles. These animals are easily distinguished by size, standing only three feet and weighing 75 to 130 pounds, having white markings on rump, belly and throat.

Felines are carnivorous animals with retractable claws, short faces and rounded ears. Two feline species occur in the park, mountain lions and bobcats. Mountain lions, called cougars and pumas, pass through this area in search of new territory but do not stay long as there is not enough prey or protective cover for them. Bobcats are small, stealthy creatures, usually seen at night when they are hunting small mammals and birds. Their small body (weighing 15 – 35 pounds) is tawny colored (grayer in winter), with indistinct black spotting. They have a short, stubby tail with 2 – 3 black bars and black tip above and pale or white below. Their face has thin, black lines radiating onto a broad cheek ruff with slightly tufted ears. Bobcats make their home in rock crevices, hollowed logs and under fallen trees and could possible live on or near the park. While bobcats may wander 25 – 50 miles in search of food and shelter, they generally remain within two miles of their dens.

There are at least 16 species of reptiles identified at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument. The abundance of food and cover makes excellent habitat for snakes, turtles and one species of lizard. Reptiles are cold blooded animals, meaning they regulate temperatures from outside sources. Mammals are warm blooded and energy is used to keep the body at a specific temperature. Reptiles bask, or rest in the sun, to warm themselves and burrow into the ground, or hide under rocks, or in water to cool themselves.

There is a wide variety of snakes at Agate, including at least 12 documented species. Most commonly sighted are the bullsnake, prairie rattler, hognose and garter snakes. Snakes are distinguished by their elongated body, lack of appendages (arms and legs), and they have no external ear opening. All snakes at Agate are shy, and do not generally approach people or pets, preferring to hide and wait for danger to pass. Rattlesnakes rattle their tail as a warning that they are there and do not want to be disturbed. If a visitor does encounter a rattlesnake, or a snake they can not identify, wait for it to pass, or slowly walk away from it and let a ranger know. To protect the rattlesnakes and visitors, park staff move them away from the trails and Visitor Center and Museum, to less traveled areas of the park.

One species of lizard is known to be present at Agate, the short-horned lizard, sometimes called the horny toad. This little guy is commonly sited around the rocks near the Fossil Hills trail. Short-horned lizards are between two and six inches long with pointy spines on their head and body. They are most active in the heat of the day and burrow into the soil at night to stay warm. They feed mostly on ants but occasionally eat other insects.

From the big snapping turtles to the colorful painted turtle, turtles are fun to see and watch. There are three species of turtles documented at Agate, snapping, painted and spiny soft-shell, which is not commonly seen. Visitors who patiently watch might see a snapping turtle that weighs up to 45 pounds with a shell measuring 18 inches long. Even the smaller snappers are easily identified by their hooked jaws, massive heads, long tails and darkly colored shells. Snappers feed on invertebrates, aquatic plants, carrion, birds, small mammals and fish. Though they are excellent swimmers and spend most of their time in the water or buried in mud, they can travel overland several miles at a time. The painted turtles are smaller, ranging from 4”-10” and are identified by their colors. Their shell is olive to black with the segments of the shell lined with red; neck, legs and tail are striped with red and yellow. Painted turtles spend most of their time in the water, or very close to it, and enjoy basking on partially submerged logs and debris. Young painted turtles have a carnivorous diet, meaning they eat mostly meat, but grow to prefer an herbaceous diet of aquatic plants and reeds after a few years.

Prairie Rattlesnakes are a normal part of grasslands found at Agate. They are rarely seen and normally try to avoid humans, but encounters do happen. Avoid snakes when you can and never try to touch them or harm them. People generally get bitten when they try to move or come near a snake. Wearing ankle- high hiking boots can help protect you if you should accidently come across a poisonous snake.

Do not approach any wildlife and never try to feed them. Human food is bad for wildlife and leads them to depend on humans to sustain them. This can cause them to become nuisance at picnic areas. Do not get too close to snapping turtles as they have very strong jaws.

Annual Park Pass is $15, good at Agate Fossil Beds N.M., Scotts Bluff N.M., and Fort Laramie N.H.S.

Individual fee is $3.00 for 7 days.

Vehicle fee is $5.00 for 7 days.

Camping is prohibited within the park. The park does not have camping resources available; however, there are camp grounds within the region. Fort Robinson State Park, located near Crawford, Nebraska, has camping facilities. Other areas to camp in the region include the Nebraska National Forest near Chadron and Toadstool Park north of Harrison.

If traveling from the south; Scottsbluff, Gering and Mitchell all have RV camping, restaurants and gas stations. The closest of these, Mitchell, is 34 miles south of Agate Fossil Beds. If traveling from the north; primitive camping is available at Gilbert-Baker Park 5 miles north of Harrison or RV camping is available in Harrison at the Sage Motel and at the city park where there are 2 free hookups.

Scotts Bluff National Monument is 45 miles away, Fort Laramie National Historic Site is 79 miles away, Chimney Rock National Historic Site is 72 miles away, Mount Rushmore National Memorial is 176 miles away, Wind Cave National Park is 138 miles away, Jewel Cave National Monument is 184 miles away, Devils Tower National Monument is 209 miles away, Badlands National Park is 249 miles away, Rocky Mountain National Park is 220 miles away, and Yellowstone National Park is 424 miles away from the Monument. Other attractions include Hudson-Meng Bison Bonebed at 72 miles away, Toadstool Geologic Park at 69 miles away, The Mammoth Site at 125 miles away, and Fort Robinson State Park at 50 miles away.

The nearest air service is available through Western Nebraska Regional Airport in Scottsbluff, Nebraska, approximately 50 miles southeast of the Monument.

Directions into the park: access region by automobile via Interstates 80, 90 and 25, and various state highways and county roads.

Visitors traveling east-west on U.S. Highway 26, turn North on State Highway 29 at Mitchell, Nebraska. The park is 34 miles from Mitchell. Visitors traveling on U.S. Highway 20, turn South on State Highway 29 at Harrison, Nebraska. The park is 22 miles from Harrison. Follow the National Park Service signs.

Aside from River Road (Sioux County) and the designated parking areas, visitors are not allowed to drive vehicles within the park boundaries. Vehicles driven by staff, adjacent landowners, and other individuals performing official business are allowed to drive inside the park on non-developed roads.

No public transportation is available at the park. However, there is a taxi service in Scottsbluff, Nebraska.

The best way to see Agate is to drive to the park and hike the trails. Vehicles including RVs can be parked at the main lot near the Visitor Center and Museum. Located near the t-intersection of Highway 29 and River Road, the Daemonelix trail-head also has a parking area for vehicles and large RVs.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument

301 River Road

Harrison, NE 69346-2734

Headquarters (308)668-2211

By Fax 308-668-2318

Map

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Park is open year-round. Visitor center is open daily except Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year’s Days. During the summer, the visitor center is open daily from 8:00 am – 7:00 pm. There are seasonal hours. The visitor center and the cave are accessible to people with limited mobility. Limited areas of the cave are accessible to wheelchairs. To schedule a special tour, call ahead: (605) 745-4600 or check at the information desk. There are fees charged for these services.

American Indians of the area have many stories about holes in the Black Hills that blow wind, but the first recorded discovery of Wind Cave was in 1881. Jesse and Tom Bingham were attracted to the cave by a whistling noise. As the story goes, wind was blowing out of the cave entrance with such force that it blew off Tom’s hat. A few days later when Jesse returned to show this phenomenon to some friends, he was surprised to find the wind had switched directions and his hat was sucked into the cave. Today, we understand that the direction of the wind is related to the difference in atmospheric pressure between the cave and the surface. The first person reported to have entered the cave was Charlie Crary in the fall of 1881. He claimed to have left twine to mark his trail, others entering the cave later found his twine. These early explorers were the first to see a rare cave formation called boxwork. J.D. McDonald was one of the first people to try to lay claim to the cave. One of J.D.’s sons, Alvin, spent much of his time exploring and mapping the cave, faithfully keeping a diary and making a map of his findings. He’s notes are still used in mapping and researching the cave. Calcite Lake, the first lake discovered in the cave, was found in 1963 as well as other larger cave rooms. Surveying a cave such as Wind Cave is a long and difficult task. The Wind Cave map is the result of tens of thousands of hours of work by cavers exploring and charting out the thousands of passages that we now know comprise Wind Cave. They maintain such colorful names for these cave areas as Confederate Crossing, Summer Avenue, Turtle Pass, Pop Corn Alley, Old Fellow’s Hall, and Giant’s Causeway.

On January 3, 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt signed the bill creating Wind Cave National Park. When first established as the country’s seventh national park, Wind Cave National Park’s main purpose was to protect the cave and assist visitors in enjoying it. Many changes had occurred to the environment prior to 1900. Native animals had been driven off by hunting and settlement and the land was plowed for farming and grazed by cattle. The cave had even been changed. Formations were removed by visitors, explorers, and guides during the 1890′s with many formations being sold as souvenirs. Names were written or carved into the cave and litter was left behind. Other harmful changes were made unintentionally, some in the early days and some much later, but many happened in the effort to provide ways for visitors to see the cave. Park managers are looking at ways to mitigate the damage done in the past. Artificial entrances to the cave caused the cave’s climate to change by allowing increased airflow through the passages. The most dramatic effect of climate change was a rock fall at the walk-in entrance caused by freezing and thawing. To help control these changes, airlocks were built at all artificial entrances to restore the cave to more natural conditions.

But by 1912, the protection and reestablishment of native wildlife within the park’s boundaries was recognized as an equally important goal. The Wind Cave National Game Preserve established August 10, 1912, was born. On July 1, 1935, control of the Game Preserve was transferred to the Department of the Interior. The Wind Cave National Game Preserve was abolished and Wind Cave National Park began a resource management program. Among the park’s foremost missions as wildlife sanctuary was the restoration of populations of bison, elk, and pronghorn to the Black Hills. By the late 1880s, these animals had been eliminated from this part of their range, largely because of uncontrolled hunting. The story of the bison’s return reflects the success of the park’s management programs. Starting with 14 bison donated by the Bronx Zoo in 1913, the herd now numbers about 350 today. The elk also were successfully reintroduced, but the pronghorns did not get as successfully established and today’s populations fluctuate at 40-125.

Other wildlife, including mule deer, cottontail rabbits, and many kinds of birds, lives in the prairies, forests, and hills of Wind Cave. Located near the middle of the country, the park embraces animal and plant species common to both the East and West. Don’t be surprised to see ponderosa pines and pinyon jays-both Western natives-alongside American elms and eastern bluebirds. You’ll also see grebes, pelicans, cormorants, herons, bitterns, red-tailed hawk, golden eagle, rails, coots and cranes. For mammals, you find myotis, bats, weasels, coyotes, mountain lions, elk, and pronghorn to name a few.

The Black Hills are sometimes described as an island rising within a sea of grass. This sudden rise in elevation and the resulting slopes and exposures produce a much different climate than the surrounding plains. Wind Cave National Park lies on the southern tip of the “island” and, like the rest of the southern hills, has weather patterns that are greatly influenced by the Rocky Mountains to the west and the higher peaks of the northern Black Hills. Generally, the climate is semi-arid with mild winters and warm summers. The park and the rest of the southern Black Hills are much warmer and drier than the northern hills.

Much of the information concerning the composition of the rising Great Plains plant community is from the last glacial episode. The last continental glacier reached it maximum 12,000-14,000 years ago. The Black Hills region was never glaciated, but the continental ice sheet came within 150 miles, reaching what is now the Missouri River. Spruce forests were present in park-like stands across South Dakota. When the last continental ice sheet retreated, the Northern spruce gradually followed northward. Some remained as relict stands in suitable habitat in the canyons and the valleys of the Black Hills. Pines slowly migrated to the Black Hills from the west. Early Holocene shortgrass prairie can be found just southwest of the Black Hills and contains grass species that are also located in the high altitude in the Black Hills. During the Holocene Epoch, a period of extreme arid conditions known as the Altithermal contributed to the rise of more drought tolerant plants, like blue grama and buffalo grass. The vast grassland plains expanded during this period. As the spruce declined, the more xeric ponderosa pine became dominant. Today the Black Hills is a place of great biodiversity because of this past.

A botanist working on contract for the U.S. Forest Service has discovered a rare form of Moonwort Fern, Botrychium campestre, in Wind Cave National Park. Dr. Donald Farrar, from Iowa State University, was hired by the U.S. Forest Service to determine if this moonwort fern, Botrychium campestre, a plant that only grows a few inches high, was to be found anywhere on the Black Hills National Forest. When he was unable to locate the plant on Forest Service land, he began looking on National Park Service land and quickly found it. Dr. Farrar said, “What is significant about this find is what it tells us about the prairie in the park. There is a very high diversity of native plants here and the discovery of this plant tells us this is a very healthy environment. This is the best native mixed-grass prairie we’ve seen in the Black Hills.” Wind Cave National Park’s biological science technician Marie Curtin said, “The Park strives to preserve mixed-grass prairie plant diversity that has disappeared from vast areas of the Great Plains. Discovery of a relatively large population of Botrychium campestre indicates that our Vegetation Management Program is on the right track.”

The backcountry of Wind Cave National Park offers visitors a great opportunity to experience and enjoy the abundant resources of the park. Within this area are several different habitats – prairie, forest, and riparian – with a variety of plants and animals living there. There are maintained and marked trails within that section and throughout the park; however, the entire park is open to hiking. Imagine walking across a prairie and viewing scenery similar to that seen by Black Hills pioneers in the 1890s. Such landscapes can be seen from the 30 miles of hiking trails in Wind Cave National Park. From these trails you can view one of the best examples of mixed-grass prairie in the United States. Seventy-five percent of the park is mixed-grass prairie and the balance is ponderosa pine forest and riparian habitat.

There are eleven maintained trails in the park. They run from 1 mile loops to 8.6 miles one way and can range from easy to very strenuous in effort rating. They traverse across a former prairie dog town; through Cold Brook Canyon; through Wind Cave Canyon, one of the best places in the park for bird watching of cliff swallows and great horned owls, among others; places to see panoramic views of Wind Cave National Park, Buffalo Gap and the Black Hills; and mixed-grass prairies, ponderosa pine forests and riparian habitats of Highland Creek, Beaver Creek and Wind Cave Canyon. Two trails, the Rankin Ridge Trail and the Elk Mountain Trail are self-guiding nature trails with trail booklets.

Beaver Creek Bridge lies 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Wind Cave visitor center on S.D. Highway 87. Built in 1929, the Beaver Creek Bridge spans one of three perennial streams that flow into Wind Cave National Park. The bridge is a deck arch built of concrete and steel. It is 225 feet (69 m) long and sits 115 feet (35 m) above the canyon floor. The bridge was constructed to provide a scenic access to newly developing Custer State Park, north of Wind Cave National Park. The Beaver Creek Bridge is historically significant. It is the only bridge of its particular arch type in South Dakota. Architects of the bridge made a significant accomplishment by creating the illusion that both concrete arches rise naturally from rock walls on opposite sides of the canyon. Construction of the bridge was made possible through the efforts of Peter Norbeck, U.S. Senator from South Dakota. Senator Norbeck was also involved with the development of Custer State Park and scenic highways within Black Hills.

Spring and fall weather are the most variable with cool, damp days alternating with dry, warm ones. Summers are generally sunny, hot, and dry. Winters are generally mild with little snow, but occasional sub-zero temperatures can be expected. Persons touring the cave should wear a lightweight jacket or sweater. The cave is 53° Fahrenheit (12° Celsius). Snowfall averages 30 inches annually. January is usually the coldest month, but March often brings the most snow. Occasional high winds can make for extra chilly weather in the spring. Like May, June can be a rainy month. Severe thunderstorms are common in June and July and occasional in August.

For the cave tours, here are some tips. Wear old clothes and gloves, as much of the trip will be crawling. Long pants, long sleeved shirts and sturdy, lace up boots or shoes with non-slip soles are required. Clothing worn on the Jewel Cave Wild Cave Tour is not permitted in Wind Cave. The park provides hard hats, lights and kneepads. They require a signed consent form for those 17 and under. (Release Form) Please do not bring jewelry, watches and other valuables on the tour. Ages 6-15 are not permitted on the Wild Cave Tour. Children under 8 are not allowed on the Historic Candlelight Cave Tour. For the protection of the cave, please do not touch the cave, remove cave rocks or formations, or step off the trail. Photography is not recommended on this tour. Stay with the tour group. There are no restrooms in the cave. Pets are not permitted in the cave. There is no eating, drinking, smoking, or chewing gum or tobacco while on tour. Persons with heart conditions or other physical ailments should reconsider taking the tours.

These tips help with back country camping and hiking. Do not disturb or remove plants, wildlife, antlers or bones, or any other cultural or natural feature. These features are all part of the ecosystem and are important to the park history or for the survival of other animals and plants. They are protected by federal law. It’s recommend that you carry all the drinking water you will need. There are only a few water sources within the park. Any water obtained in the backcountry should be boiled or filtered. No open fires are allowed in the backcountry. All cooking must be done on self-contained fuel stoves. Campfires leave permanent scars on the land and are frequently the cause of wildfires. The threat of wildfire is moderate to extreme most of the year. All backcountry campsites must be at least 1/4 mile from, and out of sight of any paved or improved dirt road. Campsites also must be 100 feet away from any trail or any water source. All litter must be packed out of the backcountry and disposed of properly. Ticks, mosquitoes, and deer flies can be plentiful in the park. They are generally found in the wetter areas of the park.

Current Weather

While in the backcountry, be alert for the presence of bison (buffalo). These animals may appear tame, but they are extremely unpredictable! During the summer mating season they are particularly dangerous and may charge without warning. The rutting, or mating, season lasts from June through September with peak activity in July and August. At this time, the older bulls rejoin the herd and fights often take place between bulls. The herd exhibits much restlessness during breeding season where the animals are belligerent, unpredictable and most dangerous. Campsites should be located away from wallows or mineral licks since bison tend to frequent these areas. Always give bison plenty of room. Do not approach these animals! To a casual observer, a grazing bison appears slow and clumsy, but he can outrun, out turn, and traverse rougher terrain than all but the fleetest horse. They can move at speeds of up to thirty-five miles per hour and cover long distances at a lumbering gallop. Their most obvious weapon is the horns that both male and female have. But their head, with its massive skull, can be used as a battering ram, effectively using the momentum produced by two thousand pounds moving at thirty miles per hour! The hind legs can also be used to kill or maim with devastating effect.

Prairie rattlesnakes, like any wild animal, can be dangerous if surprised or provoked. Rattlesnakes can be found anywhere in the park, but be particularly alert when near cliffs, rocky areas and prairie dog towns. See the Wildlife Precautions page for further animal safety tips.

Garden of Eden Cave Tour is $7.00. $3.50 for youth ages 6 to 16. Children 5 and under are free.

Natural Entrance Cave Tour and Fairgrounds Cave Tour are each $9.00. $4.50 for youth ages 6-16. Children 5 and under are free.

Historic Candlelight Cave Tour is $9.00. Wild Cave Tour is $23.00.

Elk Mountain Campground fee is $12.00 a night per site from mid-May through mid-September. From mid-September to mid-May the water is turned off and facilities at the campground are reduced. The fee is $6.00 per night during these times. Visitors holding a Golden Age or Golden Access Passport pay a half price fee. After selecting a site, return to the fee station to register and pay for the site. Drop fees into the designated box.

Elk Mountain Campground, with almost 100 campsites, is located one mile from the visitor center. The campground has flush toilets and running water during the summer months. There are no showers, dump stations, or electrical hookups. Campsites are available on a first-come, first-served basis. Each site accommodates up to eight people and two vehicles. This limit reduces impacts on the soil and vegetation. Altering the terrain by ditching or leveling the ground is prohibited. Campers with recreational vehicles must park at established campsites within the designated parking area. In past years the campground has been fairly quiet compared to other campgrounds in the Black Hills and finding a campsite has not been a problem. In the campground there are 25 pull through campsites. On B Loop there are no length limits for RVs. There is a limit of 14 days occupancy for the campground. Sites 24 and 69 are for campers with a handicapped license or a disabled permit. Evening programs are at the amphitheatre every night during the summer. It’s opened all year and offers campers a unique opportunity to view the plants and animals of the southern Black Hills. Campers, whether in a tent or a motor home, are responsible for maintaining the natural state of these habitats. After camping, leave a site you would like to visit again. Group camping is available by reservation. Contact the park for information and reservations.

Firewood is available for a small fee at the bin located at the entrance to the campground. Deposit the fee envelope in the same box as camping fees. Help preserve the park resources by using this wood and by not removing wood from the forest. The threat of fire is moderate to high most of the year. Build fires only in the designated fire grates provided. Never leave fires unattended and make sure wood and charcoal fires are completely extinguished before leaving.

Please do not dump waste water on the ground. Trailer dump stations are located in Hot Springs and Custer. Camper service sinks are available in each comfort station. Remember, a very delicate cave lies beneath the campground and our actions may have a negative impact on it.

Help preserve the environment at Wind Cave National Park by keeping all dogs, cats and other pets on a leash at all times. Pets running loose disrupt the native wildlife, can disturb other park visitors and are sometimes the targets of larger wild animals. Leaving pets unattended or tied to any object within the Park is prohibited, including the exterior of motor vehicles parked within Park boundaries. Pets may be left unattended within motor vehicles with proper ventilation and water and in weather that is not hazardous to the immediate welfare of the animal.

Backcountry Camping is free. All backcountry campers must have a backcountry use permit in their possession. These can be obtained at the Wind Cave visitor center information desk or at the Centennial trailheads. Backcountry camping is limited to the northwest area of the park. Please practice low impact camping and hiking techniques. Leave no trace of your visit, make no changes.

The nearest commercial airport is in Rapid City, SD.

Visitors traveling by car on I-90: At Rapid City, SD, exit onto U.S. Route 79 south. Follow Route 79 south approximately 50 miles to U.S. Route 18. Turn right onto U.S. Route 385 North, which will take you through Hot Springs and into Wind Cave National Park. Follow signs to the visitor center for cave tours and general park information. Visitors can also reach the park by following U.S. Route 16 west out of Rapid City onto U.S. Route 385 south. Visitors traveling from Nebraska can follow U.S. Route 385 north to the park.

There are 30 miles of hiking trails in the park. U.S. Route 385, S.D. Route 87 and two backcountry roads make much of the park accessible to motor vehicles.

Approximate Mileage from the following major cities to Wind Cave National Park:

By Car:

Rapid City, SD – 56.27 miles

Provo, SD – 42.08 miles

Castle Rock, SD – 127.55 miles

Scotts Bluff, NE – 168.12 miles

Hampshire, WY – 92.52 miles

Wind Cave National Park, RR 1 Box 190, Hot Springs, SD 57747-9430

Visitor Information (605) 745-4600

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Voyageur was authorized in 1971 to preserve the natural beauty and wonders of this historic area. It was formally made a state park in 1975. The park encompasses 218,054 acres; 83,789 acres of water and 134,265 acres of land. Fifty-five miles of the park meanders along the Canadian border with Ontario.

Voyageurs National Park is a mosaic of land and water, a place of interconnected lakes that flow west into the Rainy River, and eventually north as part of the arctic watershed of Hudson Bay. It is a place of transition, between upland and aquatic ecosystems, southern boreal and northern hardwoods forest types, and both wild and developed areas. The foundation of the park’s landscape was sculpted by a series of glaciers that have scoured and carved the area. The forests that now drape the upland portions of the park exist on a thin layer of soil that has formed in the comparatively short period of time since the last glacier receded.

Early Native Americans were the first to make use of the abundant resources the lakes and forests provided, followed by Europeans and other native groups drawn to the area during the fur trade period of the late 1700′s and early 1800′s. Mining, commercial fishing, logging and recreational use brought more people to the region in the years that followed, evidence of which may be found in the park today.

Winter is a time of ice and snow at Voyageurs, when the surface of even the largest lakes in the park freezes to depths of over two feet and the park’s wildlife are challenged by long periods of extreme cold. Some hibernate, but others are left to forage for food as best they can.

A good set of navigational maps available from the visitor’s centers and the know-how to use them are mandatory to run on the waterways. It is suggested to use a professional guide when traveling on the waterways as there are submerged rocks that can severely damage boats.

Be aware of the water levels before diving or jumping into the water. Check with local areas regarding water safety.

When backpacking, wear layers as the weather changes quickly in all seasons. Have good hiking boots, a compass, map, and watch for poison ivy and ticks.

Treat all water before drinking or using it to cook with. Use bear-resistant food lockers or hang food in a tree at least 10 feet from the ground and 10 feet from the main trunk.

Current Weather

The park has two distinct but overlapping habitat types–the terrestrial, upland ecosystem and the aquatic ecosystem. Each has its own set of herbivores, insectivores, omnivores and carnivores, although some species cross the boundary to inhabit or get food from both. There are 240 species of birds, 10 species of reptiles and amphibians, 53 species of fish, 42 species of mammals, including white-tailed deer, bears and wolves, and countless invertebrates to see in the park. The wildlife you will see will vary with the seasons.

There is no entrance fee. Free boat ramps and parking can be found at the visitor centers and the Kabetogama state campgrounds.

200 designated campsites offer free overnight stay permits, limited to 14 days at a specific site and a maximum of 30 days in a calendar year. The season runs May 15 to September 15. The “boat-in” campsites are scheduled on a first-come, first-serve basis, but there are drive-up campsites outside of the park at Woodenfrog State Forest Campground on Kabetogama Lake.

It is 300 miles north of Minneapolis-St. Paul and can be accessed by car on Highway 53 from the south and Highway 11 from the west.

Approximate Mileage from the following major cities to Voyageurs National Park:

By Car:

Duluth, MN – 172.99 miles

St. Paul, MN – 301.21 miles

Charlesville, MN – 292.73 miles

St. Cloud, MN – 294.83 miles

Kenora ON, CA – 148.67 miles

Dryden ON, CA – 128.71 miles

By Plane

Falls International Airport – 13.32 miles

Minneapolis St. Paul International Airport St, Edina, MN – 316.57 miles

Minneapolis St. Paul Airport St Paul, MN – 309.61 miles

There is no public transportation to Voyageurs National Park.

Voyageurs National Park, 3131 Highway 53, International Falls, MN 56649
(218) 283-9821

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